The Prophets and Social Concern

By J. Carl Laney

[Professor of Biblical Literature, Western Conservative Baptist Seminary, Portland, Oregon]

The 19th century saw the flowering of the “social gospel”[1] in America. Leading proponents Washington Gladden (1863–1918) and Walter Rauschenbusch (1861–1918) called for reformation in society and emphasized the need for churches to be concerned about the poor and the oppressed.

The social gospel met opposition among many more traditional church leaders. There was widespread fear that participation in works of social improvement would lead to neglect of more traditional evangelistic activities. Some Christians, in effect, minimized the importance of social concerns and shared no interest in improving the conditions of suffering humanity.

Through the influence of liberation theology, the social aspect of the gospel message has gained greater prominence today, especially in poverty-ridden, Third World countries. The social gospel question was prominent at the Lausanne II conference in Manila in July 1989.[2]

What are the social implications of biblical Christianity? Many suggest that the gospel should include greater attention to the physical needs of the lost. Others seek to avoid compromising the “pure and simple” gospel by social involvement and Christian activism. The purpose of this article is to present a biblical balance between these two approaches. While not equating church leaders with the prophets nor the Church Age with Old Testament Israel, this article suggests that the prophets do provide a scriptural pattern for addressing social concerns.

The Prophet and Society

The prophets of Yahweh were raised up by God from society (Deut 18:15) and sustained a prominent relationship with society as political and religious leaders, preachers of the Law, predictors of future judgment, watchmen over the spiritual life of the nation, intercessors for the people, and prosecutors against covenant-breakers. The prophets were concerned with international events and the future, while at the same time they were practical in dealing with the concerns of their own localities and generations.[3]

Kraeling has well said, “The great Hebrew prophets were public men, mainly concerned with political and social questions of the day.”[4] They had a definite concern for social justice as well as religious orthodoxy. As Beecher notes, “More prominently than anything else they rebuke unequal and unkind practices in the administration of justice, and inexorably demand reformation. It is largely for the purpose of reform that they engage in public affairs.”[5]

Yet while the prophets were involved in social concerns, they were not primarily social reformers. Bullock regards them as “theological reformers,” for “their basic motivation was generated within their commitment to the fundamental laws of God.”[6] Their concern for the oppressed, the widow, the orphan, the poor, and the resident alien sprang from God’s own compassionate nature (Deut 15:11; 24:14–15; Exod 22:21–27).

Heschel has stated that justice was important to the prophets because it pertained to God’s status in human life.[7] The social concern of the prophets was grounded in theological reform with an expressed concern for elevating the reputation of God and His standards in society.

The prophets considered each citizen responsible to dispense justice (Mic 6:8). Isaiah called for Israelites to “give rest to the weary” (Isa 28:12). When the members of Israelite society failed to fulfill this responsibility, the prophets stepped in to intercede on behalf of those who had no intercessor. As Bullock notes, “Where the king and official, either because of apathy or inaccessibility, stepped out of their expected role, the prophets stepped in.”[8]

The Prophet and Social Issues

The prophets of Israel were greatly concerned with social issues, both moral and religious. Indeed, for the prophets, social and moral concern lay at the very heart of religion. Repeatedly they rebuked idolatry, formalistic worship, failure to support temple worship, oppression of the poor, murder, usury, and dissipation.

The origin of the social and moral concern so often expressed by the prophets is debated. Many scholars have noted a relationship between the Deuteronomic law and the prophets and suggest that Deuteronomy was an attempt to bring the teaching of the prophets into statute form.[9] In reality, it should be viewed the other way around. As Kaufmann observes, “The prophetic demands for social justice echo, for the most part, the ancient covenant laws.”[10] Shultz, who concurs with Kaufmann, writes:

The ethical and social concern expressed by Moses was likewise repeatedly appealed to by the prophets. Having departed from the prescribed Mosaic standard, the Israelites were warned by the prophets of their shortcomings on the basis of the divinely revealed law of Moses.[11]

The prophets were not great innovators, presenting the Israelites with new responsibilities in the social and moral realm. Rather, they believed that the ideal for Israel’s society was laid down in the covenantal legislation of the past. Justice and righteousness, the foundation of the Law and pillars of society, were viewed by the prophets as the order for every age.[12] The prophets’ concern for society and social issues clearly originates with the Mosaic Law and with Yahweh Himself. The following chart illustrates that the preaching of the prophets was based on the Law:

Subject	Law	Prophet
The orphan and widow	Deut 10:18	Ezek 22:7
The return of the pledge	Exod 22:26	Amos 2:8
The perversion of justice	Deut 24:17	Hab 1:4
Bribery	Exod 23:8	Mic 3:11
Usury	Lev 25:36	Ezek 22:12

Many other verses relating to social concerns in the Law could be cited (Exod 22:21–23; Deut 14:28–29; 16:11, 14; 24:19–21; 26:12–13; 27:19). There is clearly a common body of instruction on which the messages of the prophets were based. The prophets of God simply applied the Mosaic legislation to their contemporary situations.

The Pattern of the Prophets

The prophets’ concern for social issues is reflected throughout their writings. A brief survey illustrates this emphasis.[13]

Amos

Amos prophesied to Israel during the reigns of Uzziah (791-739 B.C.) and Jeroboam II (793-753 B.C.), when both kingdoms enjoyed peace and prosperity unequaled since the reign of Solomon. In spite of its healthy appearance, however, Israel was in an advanced state of decay—socially, morally, and religiously. Jeroboam did evil in the sight of Yahweh and continued in idolatry (2 Kings 14:23–24). Uzziah, though a good king, failed to remove the high places and the people continued their pagan sacrifices (2 Kings 15:4).

The Prophet Amos raised his voice in protest against the religious and moral corruption of his day. And he warned of national judgment on those refusing to change their ways. Kaufmann observes that Amos was the first prophet to evaluate social morality as a factor in national destiny.[14]

The sins condemned by Amos include exploitation and oppression of the poor and needy (4:1; 5:11; 8:4, 6), corrupt and degenerate religious practices (2:4, 6, 8; 4:4), corruption of justice and honesty (5:7, 10; 6:12), excessive indulgence (6:4), and general disregard for the laws of God (2:8; 8:5).

In dealing with the sins of Israelite society, Amos warned of impending judgment (2:5, 13–16; 3:2, 11–15; 5:25–27), but he also called the people to repentance (4:12–13; 5:4–15). Amos insisted that true religion and a biblical morality are inseparable. He called the people to “let justice roll down like waters and righteousness like an ever-flowing stream” (5:24). “Justice” (מִשְׁפָּט) or “proper arrangement” may be defined as “the just claims of God” on society.[15] In its ethical sense, “righteousness” (צֶדֶק), refers to what is in conformity with the divine standards of God.[16] The righteous person recognizes God’s standard, treating others (rich or poor) equally before the Law. Amos appealed for people to let these two qualities characterize their dealings with God and other individuals. Only then would society function according to divine norms.

Hosea

Hosea began his public ministry in the reign of Israel’s King Jeroboam II (793-753 B.C.) and continued into the reign of Hezekiah (728-686 B.C.). Israel prospered in the early years of this period, but Assyria was in the ascendancy and moving west. The kingdom of Israel was at a spiritual low point during Hosea’s ministry. At this time of spiritual declension God raised up Hosea to convince Israel that the nation must repent and turn to God in order to avert divine judgment. Hosea pointed out that the root cause of the problems of the Israelites was their spiritual apostasy. Their failure toward God resulted in a failure toward fellow Israelites.

The sins of Hosea’s day included harlotry (4:11, 18), false dealings (4:2; 7:1), violence and bloodshed (4:2; 6:8–9), stealing (4:2; 7:1), drunkenness (4:11; 7:5), idolatry (4:12; 8:4; 13:2), and rebellion against God (9:15; 13:16).

The solution Hosea offered to the social sins of his day included both judgment and repentance. Because of the nation’s sins and unfaithfulness to the covenant stipulations, Hosea pronounced judgment on her (5:1–14; 8:1–9:9). Under the covenant curses, the Northern Kingdom was doomed to destruction (5:7–9; 7:13). Yet the people were exhorted to repent from their sinful apostasy (6:1–3; 14:1–3) and to receive God’s healing and restoration (14:4). God desired that Israel cultivate loyalty (חֶסֶד, 6:6) and that knowledge of the Lord be increased (6:3, 6). Hosea exhorted the people to practice “justice” as a step along the path toward healing and restoration (12:6).

Hosea repeatedly lamented the people’s lack of “knowledge” of God (4:6, 14; 5:4; 11:3). Hosea anticipated that after the evils of society had been remedied by divine judgment, the people would “know the Lord” (2:20). Paterson observes, “The remedial purpose of judgment is to bring about repentance, and the result will be a newness of life that consists of knowledge of God.”[17] Israel’s failure in understanding the character of God issued in wrong attitudes and evil conduct. The ultimate corrective presented by Hosea is a knowledge of God brought about through judgment and repentance.

Isaiah

Isaiah began his ministry in the year of King Uzziah’s death (739 B.C.) and continued prophesying until at least the death of Hezekiah (686 B.C.). Isaiah ministered during a time of spiritual degeneracy and apostasy, especially during the reigns of Ahaz and Manasseh. Hezekiah did bring much-needed reform, but his son offset his worthy efforts. In Isaiah’s day Judah was faced with the same spiritual problems that had destroyed the Northern Kingdom.

The sins Isaiah rebuked included idolatry (2:8; 48:5), injustice (1:21, 23; 5:7; 10:1–2; 59:8), bloodshed (5:7; 59:7), religious formalism and hypocrisy (1:10–15; 29:13; 58:1–5), rebellion (1:5; 57:4); neglect of widows and orphans (1:23; 10:2), excessive indulgence in wine and strong drink (5:11; 28:1–7), and oppression of the poor (3:14–15; 10:2).

Isaiah condemned the citizens of Judah for failing to measure up to God’s righteous norms in relationship to God and others. Yet he maintained a confident expectation of the establishment of social justice. He anticipated a day in which justice and righteousness would prevail among the Israelite people.

Isaiah suggested two solutions that would enable righteousness to prevail. One was the responsibility of the people to repent and do good (1:16–17). If they repented, they would receive forgiveness of sins. God would give them blessing for their obedience. But continued rebellion would result in judgment. The people’s responsibility was also expressed in 58:6–7, where true piety involves ceasing oppression and helping the hungry, homeless, poor, and naked. The Lord asked the people to “preserve justice, and do righteousness” (56:1). Such human efforts at righting the wrongs of society must, however, be preceded by repentance and turning to the Lord (55:6–7).

The second solution Isaiah anticipated is the coming of the Messiah, who will establish social justice in the millennial kingdom. The Servant-Messiah will “bring forth justice to the nations” and establish “justice on the earth” (42:1, 4; cf. 2:1–4). He will establish righteousness and peace (60:17) and will effect a just rule in society through His princes (32:1). Messiah Himself will judge the poor with righteousness and decide the case of the afflicted with fairness (11:4). A full knowledge of the Lord throughout all the earth will be the basis for harmony in the millennial society (11:9).

Micah

Micah carried out his ministry during the reigns of Jotham (750-731 B.C.), Ahaz (743-715 B.C.), and Hezekiah (728-686 B.C.). He is unique as a writing prophet, being the only one whose ministry was directed to both the northern and southern kingdoms (1:1). The Assyrian crisis brought days of unrest, insecurity, and hardship for the people of the land. Accompanying the political unrest was the low spiritual and moral situation in the lives of the people.

Micah addressed problems of the common people. He lay bare Israel’s sins, presenting God’s complaints against His people. Ellisen observes, “While Isaiah depicts the social crimes of his time from the standpoint of the townsman in the capital, Micah shows us them from the standpoint of the suffering countryman.”[18]

The societal sins Micah rebuked are basically those against the common man. These include plundering and oppressing the poor and defenseless (2:2, 8–9), perversion of justice through bribery and dishonest business practices (3:11; 6:11; 7:3), idolatry and idolatrous practices (1:7; 5:13–14), violence and bloodshed (6:12; 7:2), and empty religious formalism (6:6–7).

Like the Prophet Isaiah, Micah offered a twofold solution to the moral and spiritual problems of society. The first is to “do good.” God wanted the people to yield to the requirements of true religion, summed up so well in Micah 6:8, “to do justice, to love kindness [חֶסֶד], and to walk humbly with your God.” Here God linked ethics with piety, duty toward man with duty toward God.

The second aspect of the solution is the coming of the Messiah. Micah understood that individuals are responsible to provide social justice. But he recognized that the Lord is the One who will ultimately execute justice and see that relationships in society are arranged according to His divine norm. The execution of justice will take place during the millennium when the word of the Lord will go forth from Jerusalem (4:2). Messiah will bring peace (v. 3), provide security (v. 4), and free Israel from idolatry (v. 5). The messianic kingdom, by virtue of Christ’s rule, will yield social justice as its fruit.

Zephaniah

Zephaniah ministered in the days of Josiah king of Judah (640-609 B.C.), before the great revival of 621 B.C. The spiritual and moral condition of the kingdom progressively worsened from the death of Hezekiah till Josiah’s reform. The threat of Babylonian invasion provided the political background for Zephaniah’s prophecies of judgment. He warned of impending judgment and called for the remnant of God’s people to turn to the Lord (2:3).

Zephaniah was concerned about the spiritual degeneracy of the people, the priests, and the leaders. He condemned idolatry and syncretistic worship (1:4–5), rebellion and oppression (3:1), unbelief (3:2), immorality among leaders (3:3), and disrespect for the Law and holy things (3:4).

Repentance is the solution Zephaniah offered Judah. He exhorted the people to seek the Lord, righteousness, and humility (2:3). Such repentance would have a significant effect on the spiritual problems of the nation. Zephaniah’s exhortation undoubtedly paved the way for Josiah’s great reformation.

Habakkuk

The ministry of Habakkuk probably took place early in the reign of Jehoiakim (609-597 B.C.), before the first invasion of the Babylonians (Chaldeans) in 605 B.C. (2 Kings 24:1–2). After Josiah, the great reformer, died, the spiritual conditions of the people of Judah rapidly degenerated. The sins of the people left the nation ripe for judgment that God would effect through the invasions of Nebuchadnezzar in 605, 597, and 586 B.C.

Habakkuk condemned the sins of both the Judeans and Chaldeans. These included violence (1:2; 2:12, 17), oppression (1:4), disregard for the Law (1:4), perversion of justice (1:4), plundering (2:8), inhumanity to man (2:10–11, 15), and idolatry (2:18–19).

Standing on the threshold of judgment prophesied by Isaiah, Habakkuk offered no alternative to judgment (1:12). He did set forth, however, a principle of divine recompense that would function as an encouragement to the people: the upright man living in reliance on God will be preserved, whereas the proud and wicked will perish (2:4). Habakkuk anticipated a day after judgment when the knowledge of God’s glory will fill the earth (2:14).

Jeremiah

Jeremiah was commissioned as a prophet during the reign of Josiah in 627 B.C., and he continued his ministry in Judah through the fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.). Josiah brought spiritual reform to the nation, but the rulers who followed him had no such spiritual inclinations. The religious and spiritual life of the people went into deep decline after his death.

Jeremiah was a prophet intensely interested in society and the religious condition of the people. The sins he rebuked included religious failure and apostasy among the people and priests (2:8, 13; 3:1; 5:31; 7:18; 17:2; 19:4–5), immorality (2:33; 3:8; 5:7–8; 7:9), oppression of the poor (5:28; 7:6), and perversion of justice (7:5).

Jeremiah exhorted the people to turn from evil (4:14). Repentance from injustice, oppression, and bloodshed would deter God’s judgment and would enable the faithful to enjoy God’s blessing in the land (7:5–7). Also Jeremiah, like most of the other prophets, anticipated the coming of Messiah, who will “do justice and righteousness in the land” (23:5). Through Messiah’s millennial reign, the Lord will exercise loyalty, justice, and righteousness on earth (9:24).

In addition Jeremiah explained that the New Covenant would give the people a new basis on which to fulfill their responsibilities to God and their fellow man (31:31–34). With the Law inscribed on their hearts, and a knowledge of Yahweh, the people would have divine enablement for living according to God’s divine order. Jeremiah viewed the New Covenant as the spiritual solution to the social and moral problems of the people of Judah.

Ezekiel

Ezekiel began his prophetic ministry in 592 B.C. and continued to minister to the exiles in Babylon for at least 27 years (29:17). Ezekiel was a contemporary of Jeremiah, who prophesied in Jerusalem, and of Daniel, who ministered in the royal court of Babylon. Until the fall of Jerusalem, Ezekiel’s ministry to the colony of exiles consisted primarily of preaching judgment against Judah. After 586 B.C. his ministry was one of consolation, predicting the future restoration of the nation with its temple and worship.

The sins of Israelite society condemned or rebuked by Ezekiel included spiritual apostasy and idolatry (5:11; 6:3–6; 8:3, 5, 10; 14:3; 18:15; 36:18), oppression of the poor, widows, and orphans (18:12, 16; 22:29), bloodshed (22:3–4, false prophecy (13:2, 16, 23; 22:28), and sexual immorality (18:11; 22:10–11).

Ezekiel said divine judgment was one means by which the wrongs of society would be corrected. God’s judgment on Jerusalem would bring the people to a knowledge of the Lord. The phrase, “and you will know that I am the Lord,” is used about 60 times in the book with reference to the expected outcome of divine judgment (6:7, 10, 13–14; 7:4; 11:10, etc.). Ezekiel anticipated a judgment that would purify Israel and bring the people to the Lord (14:9–11).

A second solution is personal repentance. Ezekiel exhorted the people to repent and live (18:30, 32). The one who turns from sin and practices righteousness “will surely live” (18:5–9; 33:14–16).

With Jeremiah, Ezekiel set forth the New Covenant as a means of bringing a new heart and understanding to the people (36:25–28). This change will serve as the spiritual basis for obedience and blessing, enabling the people to live in the righteous and just manner required by God.

Zechariah

Zechariah entered his prophetic ministry in 520 B.C., just two months after Haggai’s first oracle. His last dated prophecy is two years later (518 B.C.). When Zechariah ministered, the temple was incomplete and the city of Jerusalem was in ruins. The people were experiencing drought and adversity instead of divine blessing. To these despairing people Zechariah offered a message of messianic hope and promise.

The sins he condemned included a neglect of justice (7:9), oppression of widows, orphans, and strangers (7:10), refusal to respond to the prophet of God (7:11), and devising evil (8:17).

The first solution Zechariah offered was repentance (1:3–4). He exhorted the people to dispense justice and practice loyalty and compassion. The people ought to speak truth, judge with truth, and love truth and peace (8:16–17, 19). Such changes in attitude and practice would help bring about social justice in Israelite society.

Like many prophets before him, Zechariah looked to the day when the Messiah will dwell in the midst of Zion, establishing a righteous and just rule in Israel (14:9–11).

Malachi

Malachi probably prophesied between the first and second governorships of Nehemiah (ca. 432-31 B.C.). The Jews had been home from Babylon a little over 100 years. Though the exile had cured them of idolatry, they had lost their enthusiasm for the worship of God in Jerusalem. After Nehemiah’s revival (Neh 10:28–29), the people again succumbed to religious indifference and moral laxity. Through Malachi the Lord called these wayward people to repentance and obedience.

The sins of Judah included corruption of religion and proper worship (Mal 1:7–8; 3:8), perversion of justice (2:9), intermarriage with pagans (2:11), divorce (2:16), and oppression of the helpless (3:5).

The first solution mentioned by Malachi was repentance. He exhorted the people to return to God (3:7) and obey Him (3:10; 4:4). A second solution, Malachi pointed out, is the approaching day of the Lord, in which the Messiah will come and will purge the evil and oppression from society (3:2, 17; 4:1, 3, 5–6).

The Application of the Study

The prophets of Israel spoke to the social issues that troubled Israelite society both in matters of religious orthodoxy and social justice. The sins the prophets rebuked included the following: (1) the exploitation and oppression of the poor, orphans, widows, and aliens, (2) corrupt and degenerate religious practices, (3) idolatry and pagan practices, (4) perversion of justice, (5) dishonest business practices, (6) excessive indulgence in wine and strong drink, (7) violence of all sorts, including bloodshed and plotting evil, (8) adultery, immorality, and sexual violations, and (9) general disregard for the Law of Yahweh. This list reads like a moral commentary on contemporary society!

In response to these problems the prophets offered four solutions. The first two relate to what man must do; the other two relate to what God will do. First, the prophets exhorted the people to repent of their evil and turn back to God (Amos 5:4–6; Hos 6:1–3; Zeph 2:3; Jer 4:14). Second, the prophets exhorted the people to exercise justice, righteousness, and loyalty. They challenged the citizens of their day to take positive steps to right the wrongs of society (Amos 5:24; Isa 1:16–17; Mic 6:8). Third, the prophets, particularly Jeremiah and Ezekiel, looked to the establishment of the New Covenant, which will provide the spiritual power for people to walk in the manner required by God (Jer 31:31–34; Ezek 16:60–63; 36:25–28). Fourth, the prophets anticipated the coming of the Messiah, who will establish justice and righteousness during His millennial reign (Isa 11:4; 42:1–4; Mic 4:2–4).

The prophets of Israel and Judah did not cloister themselves from society and its problems. They were aware of the issues and were actively involved in speaking to the social and moral concerns of their day. They pointed out social injustice and rebuked it as sin. They called on the Israelites to do something personally to correct the evils in their society. They had confidence that the New Covenant would give God’s people the power and resources to work actively toward the establishing of social justice, and yet they recognized that complete justice and righteousness would ultimately be established by the Messiah in His future kingdom. A survey of the Gospels indicates that Jesus adhered closely to this pattern (Matt 4:17; 5:3–12; 26:20–29; Luke 3:10–14; John 5:14).

Some may object to setting forth the prophets as models for Christians in confronting social and moral issues. Admittedly the church is not Israel, and pastors are not biblical prophets. Yet what is modeled by the prophets is certainly underscored in the New Testament Epistles. Paul instructed the Galatians, “Let us not lose heart in doing good…. So then, while we have opportunity, let us do good to all men, and especially to those who are of the household of faith” (Gal 6:9–10). The writer of Hebrews admonished, “Do not neglect doing good and sharing; for with such sacrifices God is pleased” (Heb 13:16). James wrote of visiting “orphans and widows in their distress” (James 1:27) and he described good works as expressions of a genuine faith (2:15–17). Therefore it seems that the principles reflected in the prophets are not limited to a particular dispensation.

The Old Testament prophets provide a splendid pattern and an impetus for confronting and dealing with the sins and injustices of modern society. Like the prophets, Christians today should (1) recognize and condemn sin, (2) call men and women to repent of their sin, (3) direct men and women to Christ for the regeneration of the human heart and the New Covenant empowerment to overcome sin, (4) exhort people to take positive steps to correct wrongs and injustice, and (5) anticipate the return of Christ, who will establish perfect justice and righteousness during His reign in the millennium.

The prophets balanced spiritual concerns with physical problems, recognizing both man’s part and God’s part in the ultimate solution to each. This balance is reflected in the words of Amy Carmichael. Speaking in response to criticism of her humanitarian work in India, she said, “One cannot save and then pitchfork souls into heaven…. Souls are more or less securely fastened to bodies…and as you cannot get the souls out and deal with them separately, you have to take them both together.”[19]

Christians must not be content to be experts on what the Bible says about contemporary social and moral issues. Following the pattern of the prophets, they should actively engage in confronting sin and injustice, directing sinners to salvation in Christ. Seeking to right wrongs and help the oppressed, Christians may enjoy the assurance that Christ is coming again to complete the task.

Notes

1. For a helpful summary article, see The International Dictionary of the Christian Church, ed. J. D. Douglas (1974), “Social Gospel,” by Roy H. Campbell, p. 911.
2. “Global Camp Meeting,” Christianity Today (August 18, 1989), pp. 39-40.
3. Willis Judson Beecher, The Prophets and the Promise (New York: Thomas Y. Cromwell Co., 1905), p. 98.
4. Emil G. Kraeling, The Prophets (New York: Rand McNally & Co., 1969), p. 15.
5. Beecher, The Prophets and the Promise, p. 97.
6. C. Hassell Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books (Chicago: Moody Press, 1986), p. 25.
7. Abraham J. Heschel, The Prophets, 2 vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 1:198.
8. Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books, p. 25.
9. E. Hammershaimb, Some Aspects of Old Testament Prophets from Isaiah to Malachi (Denmark: Rosenkilde Og Bagger, 1966), p. 71.
10. Yehezkel Kaufmann, The Religion of Israel, trans. Moshe Greenberg (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1960), p. 365.
11. Samuel J. Shultz, The Prophets Speak (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1968), p. 36.
12. Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books, p. 19.
13. Though the theme of social concern is reflected throughout the prophets, three Major Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel) and seven Minor Prophets (Hosea, Amos, Micah, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Zechariah, and Malachi) illustrate this emphasis.
14. Kaufmann, The Religion of Israel, p. 366.
15. Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, ed. R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer, Jr., and Bruce K. Waltke, s.v. מִשְׁפָּט, by R. D. Culver, 1:949.
16. Ibid., s.v. ֶצֶדֶק, by H. G. Stigers, 2:753.
17. John Paterson, The Godly Fellowship of the Prophets (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1948), p. 47.
18. H. L. Ellisen, The Old Testament Prophets, 2d ed. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1966), p. 63.
19. Quoted by Ruth A. Tucker in Guardians of the Great Commission (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1988), p. 134.