Who Are the Sheep and Goats in Matthew 25:31-46?

By Eugene W. Pond

[Eugene W. Pond is Director of Institutional Research and Planning, and Assistant Professor of Bible Exposition, Dallas Theological Seminary, Dallas, Texas.

This is article two in a three-part series, “A Study of the Judgment of the Sheep and Goats in Matthew 25.”]

As discussed in the first article in this series, the judgment of the sheep and goats, recorded in Matthew 25:31–46, will occur on the earth immediately after Christ returns to reign.[1] This second article discusses the identity of those who will be judged, and the third will discuss the criterion of the judgment.

The Separation By The Shepherd

The Son of Man will judge πάντα τά ἔθνη, usually translated “all the nations,” which He will separate into two groups, the sheep and the goats. The sheep will inherit God’s kingdom, and the goats will be dismissed to eternal torment. In separating sheep from goats and placing the sheep in the place of favor and the goats in the place of cursing (Matt. 25:32b–33), the Son of Man will be like a shepherd, who proceeds with great care.[2]

The Discerning Separation

The verb ἀφορίζω, a compound of ἀπό and ὁρίζω, suggests careful consideration. Other than its two occurrences in Matthew 25:32, ἀφορίζω occurs eight times in the New Testament and means “to set apart” for a particular use (Acts 13:2; Rom. 1:1; Gal. 1:15) or “to separate” (Matt. 13:49; Luke 6:22; Acts 19:9; 2 Cor. 6:17; Gal. 2:12). God set Paul apart for His use even before he was born (Gal. 1:15), the Antioch church set apart Barnabas and Paul for God’s mission work (Acts 13:2), and Paul was set apart to the gospel of God (Rom. 1:1). Both meanings can be sensed in Matthew 25:32. The Son of Man will separate τά ἔθνη, setting them apart into two groups with opposite destinies. Jesus predicted that a similar separation will be conducted by angels: “So it will be at the end of the age; the angels will come forth and take out the wicked from among the righteous” (13:49, italics added).[3]

A second indicator of the care taken in the separation is the direct object αὐτούς. This masculine plural pronoun refers back to the neuter plural τά ἔθνη. By the change from the neuter noun to the masculine demonstrative pronoun, emphasis is placed on each individual ἔθνος being examined in the separation.[4]

A third fact that points to the care taken in the separation is that it will be done much as a shepherd separates sheep from goats, that is, it will be done individually. Shepherds know each member of their flocks, as seen in the parables of the lost sheep (seeking one lost sheep out of a hundred, 18:12–14) and the good shepherd (calling His sheep by name and knowing His own, John 10:3, 14).

The Pastoral Picture

The sheep and the goats. “Sheep” translates τά πρόβατα, a word Matthew used often.[5] He used it in a figure (as in chap. 25), in a hypothetical situation to illustrate the worth of a person,[6] as a symbol for innocence,[7] and to express the need for a leader.[8] In the Septuagint the word is commonly used for sheep or more generally for a flock, and the flock could include other types of animals such as goats (e.g., Gen. 27:9).

More difficult to ascertain is the meaning of τῶν ἐρίφων (Matt. 25:32). The ἔριφος was a young goat or kid, often meaning in the Septuagint a goat used for a sacrifice (Gen. 27:9; Lev. 1:10; Judg. 6:19; 13:15, 19), a payment (Gen. 38:17, 20, 23), an honorarium (1 Sam. 16:20), or food (Amos 6:4). The only other New Testament occurrence fits this last category, where the older brother of the prodigal complained to his father that “you have never given me a young goat, so that I might celebrate with my friends” (Luke 15:29). Luz shows convincingly that οἱ ἐρίφοι were young kids, distinct from full-grown male goats and slightly older “youthful” male goats. “Accordingly, eriphos has a precise meaning and can be used neither as a general designation for ‘she-goats’ nor as a general designation for male animals of various species (‘buck’).”[9]

The separating. Commentators differ on why sheep were preferred over goats, with many writers spiritualizing the biblical text.[10] Calvin pointed out from Ezekiel 34:18 that fierce goats use their horns in attacking sheep, and they destroy pastures and pollute the water.[11] Some argue that sheep are simply better than goats.[12]

German translations have usually followed Martin Luther and the Zurich Bible of 1531, which used the term Bocke (“male goat”) to translate ἔριφος; the expression “to separate the sheep from the bucks” is a proverbial German expression.[13] Commentators whose translation is “male goat” or “buck” have suggested the ἐρίφων are viewed negatively because they stink, they butt, they are oversexed, they are quarrelsome, they have horns like the devil, and so on.[14] Female goats, others suggest, would have to be separated from the sheep each evening because they needed more warmth. This view, adopted by Jeremias[15] and others,[16] “exists only on paper and originated through imprecise copying from Dalman’s large work on the ‘Work and Customs in Palestine.’ “[17]

Luz notes that the Septuagint consistently uses πρόβατα to translate וֹצאן, which generally can be rendered “small livestock.” He also identified an Ionic Greek meaning of “livestock” for πρόβατα and wonders if this older meaning was still in use. “The picture half of the parable would then be compelling: The shepherd separates certain kids which have been designated for slaughter from the remainder of the herd of small livestock, i.e., from the remaining sheep and she-goats.”[18]

It is unclear why Jesus chose to call the subjects of this judgment “sheep” and “goats.” The reason most commonly given, that goats are more sensitive to nighttime cold and must therefore be culled out each night, is unlikely. Luz’s proposal—that the shepherd calls out of his herd a group of young kids destined for slaughter—makes better sense. Weber observes that the wicked and the righteous may bear a superficial similarity to each other;[19] therefore the reader is expected to consider sheep and goats as similar in appearance.

The Shepherd’s right and left hands. The Son of Man will place the sheep, the righteous ones (Matt. 25:37), on His right hand. In the Bible the right hand is the place of honor.[20] When Joseph brought his sons Ephraim and Manasseh to bedridden Jacob to receive his blessing, he arranged for the older son Manasseh to be at Jacob’s right. Yet Jacob crossed his arms to deliver the blessing to prophesy that the younger son would be the greater (Gen. 48:9–20). Jesus is at the Father’s right hand, the position of authority, until He returns to establish the millennial kingdom (Ps. 110:1). The right hand is the position of the Lord’s power (Deut. 33:2). While the left hand can be equal with the right hand in certain contexts (such as Matt. 20:21–23), in Matthew 25 placement on the left represents being excluded from experiencing blessing.

Summary

In carrying out the judgment of the sheep and goats the Son of Man, like a shepherd, will carefully and individually separate members of a herd of virtually indistinguishable animals into two groups: sheep and goats. The sheep at His right will be placed in the position of blessing, and the goats at His left will be excluded from blessing and will be destined for slaughter.

The Subjects Who Are Separated

Who are the πάντα τά ἔθνη who will be gathered[21] before the Son of Man (Matt. 25:32)? To seek to answer this question the usage of ἔθνος will be examined, both in its singular and its plural forms. Then several suggested interpretations will be evaluated.

Τό ἜΘνος In The New Testament

Τό ἔθνος outside the Synoptic Gospels. The singular form occurs thirty-four times in the New Testament. Outside the Synoptics the word ἔθνος means a political group, a nation, or a group of citizens. Occurrences of ἔθνος in the singular refer to Israel in one of three ways. First, Jewish leaders spoke of their own people as “the nation.”[22] Second, sometimes the word was qualified with an adjective to indicate the Jewish nation, as in ἔθνος τῶν ̓́Λουδαίων (Acts 10:22). Third, ἔθνος was sometimes used with a pronoun or an adjective to designate Israel (“your nation,” John 18:35; “my nation,” Acts 24:17; 26:4; 28:19; “this nation,” 24:10). These three usages comprise eleven of the twenty-three non-Synoptic occurrences of ἔθνος. The singular ἔθνος is combined with πάς in seven cases, in which “every nation” refers to all humanity.[23] Also other nations or people groups are sometimes designated, either specified (like the Samaritan ἔθνος in Acts 8:9, and Egypt by implication in 7:7) or unspecified (Rom. 10:19 [twice], quoting Deut. 32:21). In one instance Peter used the singular ἔθνος to refer to a spiritual nation, the church, in parallel with church-age believers being called a “royal priesthood” and an “elect race” (1 Pet. 2:9).

Τό ἔθνος in the Synoptic Gospels. The Synoptic Gospels do not exhibit any additional meanings for the singular ἔθνος. Two of the nine occurrences include the personal pronoun “our” to indicate Israel. Six occurrences are in the phrase “nation shall rise against nation” in parallel with βασιλεία (Matt. 24:7; Mark 13:8; Luke 21:10), indicating unspecified nations with multiple referents. In Matthew 21:43 ἔθνος probably represents a “people group”: “Therefore I say to you, the kingdom of God will be taken away from you and given to a people [ἔθνει] producing the fruit of it.” Some understand this to be another group of people in the present age (i.e., the church, probably mostly Gentiles).24 Some see it as a future generation of Israel who will receive the offer of the kingdom in the tribulation.25 And others say this refers to God’s turning away from the Jewish religious leaders as mediators of His authority (i.e., “some people other than you”).[26]

Τά ἜΘνη In The New Testament Outside The Synoptics

The plural form occurs 130 times in the New Testament, of which 105 are outside the Synoptic Gospels. Most of the occurrences in Acts and the Epistles describe non-Jewish people. These people are viewed either as unbelievers[27] or as believers, in whole or in part.[28] Sometimes it refers to nations or non-Jewish peoples from Old Testament times: the Canaanite nations (Acts 7:45; 13:19); the offspring of Abraham, who was “a father of many nations” (Rom. 4:17–18); the world, which would be blessed through Abraham (Gal. 3:8); and nations who were called on to praise God (Rom. 15:9–11, 12 [twice]).[29] Twenty-one times the plural τά ἔθνη refers to nations or peoples of the world who oppose God or are without Him but who will be ruled by Him.[30] In 1 Timothy 3:16 the word refers to nations in general.

Τά ἜΘνη In The Synoptic Gospels

The plural form occurs twelve times in Matthew, four times in Mark, and nine times in Luke, for a total of twenty-five occurrences. They are found in three contexts: in passages from the Olivet Discourse (Matt. 24–25), in Jesus’ concluding commissioning statements (Matt. 28:19; Luke 24:47), and in other parts of the Synoptics.

Exclusive of the Olivet Discourse and the commissionings. Fifteen of the twenty-five Synoptic occurrences of the plural ἔθνη are outside the Olivet Discourse or Jesus’ concluding commissionings. The word is used of (a) all nations except Israel;[31] (b) that part of the Promised Land that was occupied by non-Jews or heavily influenced by them;[32] (c) godless (non-Jewish) people;[33] or the Romans.[34] Although these usages do not always clarify whether individuals or national units are meant, in every case ἔθνη refers to non-Jewish peoples without ambiguity.

When Jesus cleansed the temple, He said, “Is it not written, ‘My house shall be called a house of prayer for all the nations [πᾶσιν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν]? But you have made it a robber’s den’ “ (Mark 11:17). Here Jesus quoted from Isaiah 56:7, which follows Isaiah’s declaration that foreigners (individual non-Jews) will join themselves to the Lord (v. 7). The word “all” (πᾶσιν) in Mark 11:17 indicates that worship of Yahweh is potentially available to everyone.

In and after the Olivet Discourse. Ten references to τά ἔθνη in the Synoptics are in passages that comprise or parallel the Olivet Discourse or are in Jesus’ Great Commission.

Jesus said, “This gospel of the kingdom shall be preached in the whole world as a testimony to all the Gentiles [πᾶσιν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν]” (Matt. 24:14), despite the fact that the disciples will be hated by all the Gentiles “because of [Christ’s] name” (24:9). In the tribulation the gospel of the kingdom will be preached throughout the world by 144,000 Jews (Rev. 7:1–8). As a result of their ministry a vast number of people from all nationalities will believe and will be martyred (vv. 9–17).[35]

In parallel with the life-endangering persecution after the abomination of desolation is revealed, believers will “fall by the edge of the sword, and will be led captive into all the Gentiles [εἰς τά ἔθνη πάντα]; and Jerusalem will be trampled under foot by the Gentiles [ὑπὸ ἐθνῶν] until the times of the Gentiles [ἐθνῶν] are fulfilled” (Luke 21:24). Jerusalem was destroyed in A.D. 70 by the Romans, and the oppression of the city by Gentiles will continue throughout “the times of the Gentiles,” which will end when the Son of Man returns to earth.[36]

Some writers have argued that πᾶς τὰ ἔθνη (“all the nations”) includes Israel as well as Gentiles.[37] Jesus told the disciples to “make disciples of all the nations [πάντα τά ἔθνη]” by baptizing them and teaching them to obey the Lord’s commands (Matt. 28:19–20). Those who say this use of πάντα τά ἔθνη includes Jews point out that God had to almost force the early church to reach Gentiles (e.g., Peter’s reticence to consider getting involved with unclean things; Acts 10). Proponents of this view also say that Jesus’ words that “repentance for forgiveness of sins would be proclaimed in His name to all the nations [πάντα τά ἔθνη], beginning from Jerusalem” (Luke 24:47, italics added) would be strange if the phrase did not include Jews.

However, these arguments are answerable. Even though the first converts were Jews, the early church did obey the Lord in spreading the gospel to others (e.g., the Samaritans [Acts 8:4–5, 25] and the Ethiopian eunuch [vv. 26–39]).

Taking Jesus’ words in Matthew 28:19 to mean “make disciples of all the Gentiles” would not limit the gospel to Gentiles but rather would assume that the command to make disciples of the Jews was already given and understood. The disciples did not need to be commissioned to make disciples of the Jews because they had already been commissioned to preach to the house of Israel (10:6), an assignment that is to continue until the Son of Man returns (v. 23). This is similar to what the Lord communicated, in essence, to Peter in Acts 10–11: “Break out of your Jewish-only mindset because My plans are more universal.”

Πάντα Τά ἜΘνη At The Judgment Of The Sheep And Goats

The meaning of πάντα τά ἔθνη at the judgment of the sheep and goats depends on (a) whether national groups or individuals are to be judged, (b) whether the group is from all time periods (and thus includes resurrected people) or is confined to those alive at the coming of the Son of Man, and (c) whether the group refers to a subgroup of people, such as all Christians or all Gentiles.

Are πάντα τά ἔθνη in Matthew 25:32 national groups? Some commentators say that all national groups, and not individuals as such, will be judged.[38] “Individuals are not in view here, except as individuals make up nations.”[39] Price suspects that all wrongs done to Jews over the centuries will be righted here.[40]

Several considerations militate against this idea that nations are being judged rather than individuals. If whole nations (sheep) enter the kingdom, and it is assumed that no nation consists of only believers, then unsaved people would enter the kingdom. This would contradict the truth that “unless one is born again he cannot see the kingdom of God” (John 3:3). Also other references to judgments at the end of the age are best interpreted as judgments of individuals (Matt. 13:30, 47–50; Jude 14–15).[41]

Do πάντα τά ἔθνη in Matthew 25:32 include resurrected people? Gray has shown that most commentators believe this verse refers to a universal last judgment.[42] Most of them see the judgment of the sheep and goats as a judgment of all humankind, while others say a subgroup, such as Christians, is under judgment. These interpretations usually assume that the judgment in Matthew 25 is equivalent to the great white throne judgment in Revelation 20 and therefore must include resurrected people. Several arguments are given for this view. One argument is based on the generality of the text. No distinction is made between Jew and Gentile or between believer and unbeliever. All are judged by the one standard of love expressed to the humblest person.[43] A second argument is that the addressees of the gospel would see themselves included among those judged. Since those include goats as well as sheep, “the nations” must mean everyone.[44] A third argument is that this judgment corresponds to the parable of the sorting of tares from among the wheat (Matt. 13:41–43) and the parable of the dragnet, in which the wicked are separated from the righteous (vv. 47–50).[45] A fourth argument is based on the interpretation that this passage reveals how the heathen can enter God’s kingdom without having heard the gospel. Therefore all humanity will be judged, and “they will be granted the grace of a share in the Kingdom, if they have fulfilled Messiah’s law (James 2.8), the duty of love.”[46] A fifth argument is that the eternal destiny of the sheep and goats is the same as the destiny of those who will stand at the great white throne.[47]

A problem with the view that the sheep-and-goats judgment is the same as the great white throne judgment is its failure to account for the millennial kingdom. Since the nations will be judged at Jesus’ return, before the kingdom age begins (Matt. 25:31), how can resurrected unbelievers be present since their resurrection will not occur until after the millennium at the great white throne (Rev. 20:11–15; cf. vv. 1–6)? Several differences exist between the judgment of the sheep and goats and the great white throne judgment. First, the former involves a gathering of living people (Matt. 24:31 says that the elect will be gathered), while the latter features resurrected people. Second, the former is on earth, while the latter is after the heavens and the earth have fled away. Third, the former judgment will be made by the Shepherd in separating people likened to sheep and goats, but the latter involves the opening of books and the confirmation that their names are not listed in the book of life. Fourth, the former presents two classes of people (sheep and goats), whereas the latter mentions only the doom of the wicked. Fifth, the two thrones are referred to in different ways. Sixth, the basis of the former judgment is treatment of believers (“these brothers of Mine,” 25:40), but the basis of the latter judgment is their evil works. Seventh, the former mentions three classes of people (sheep, goats, brethren) along with the Son of Man and angels, but the latter mentions only God and one class of people (those whose names are not written in the book of life). Eighth, the former precedes the millennium (hungry, thirsty, naked, estranged, sick, and imprisoned people are mentioned), whereas the latter follows the millennium.[48] The judgment of the sheep and goats, then, “constitutes the judgment of the living who are on earth at the time of the second coming of Christ in respect to their entrance into the millennial kingdom.”[49]

Ladd objects to this view because Matthew 25:31–46 speaks of eternal destiny (v. 46) rather than entrance into the millennial kingdom.[50] But this objection can be answered. It is not uncommon to be awarded a final result that is not realized until some time later. For example Christians are glorified (Rom. 8:30), though they will not realize this fully until they are in heaven. In the same way, the sheep can inherit the kingdom and enter the millennium (Matt. 25:34) even though the eternal state will not occur until a thousand years later (v. 46). Old Testament prophecies of the millennial kingdom use terms that also refer to the eternal state (e.g., “new heavens and a new earth,” Isa. 65:17–23).[51]

More problematic is the goats’ destiny, because the resurrected wicked dead will not enter the lake of fire until after the millennium (Rev. 20:15). Possibly as a result of the judgment of the sheep and goats the wicked “will go away into eternal punishment” (Matt. 25:46) by means of physical death at that time, and then will be resurrected for the great white throne judgment (Rev. 20:5, 12–15). This would parallel the righteous going “into eternal life” by means of entering the millennial kingdom (and by later entering the eternal state). A less likely alternative is that the goats will be consigned immediately to the lake of fire along with the beast and the false prophet (19:20), just before the millennium begins.

Thus the view that the judgment of the sheep and goats will include resurrected people is incorrect. Rather than this being a final general judgment of all humankind, this sheep-and-goats judgment will be a judgment of people living on the earth at the time Jesus will return to establish His millennial reign.

What group of living people are πάντα τά ἔθνη in Matthew 25:32? Writers have suggested four views on the identity of the people who will be judged as sheep and goats: (a) all the heathen, (b) all supposed believers, (c) all humankind, (d) all non-Jews.

All the heathen. In this view the judgment provides a way into the kingdom for those who never heard the gospel.[52] This contradicts the exclusiveness of the gospel (John 10:9; 14:6; Acts 4:12) and therefore must be rejected.

All supposed believers. In this view the goats are people whose works do not bear out their faith, that is, they profess to know Christ but are not genuine believers.[53] Maddox says they are leaders of the church.[54] Luz sees the passage as a warning for those who profess the name of Christ against becoming complacent in their religion.[55] This view accounts for condemning to hell professing nonbelievers such as Judas. The problem with this view is that it changes the meaning of πάντα τά ἔθνη from the targets of evangelism (which obviously includes nonbelievers, Matt. 24:14) to the smaller group of professing Christendom.

All humankind. As discussed earlier, in this view the ones to be judged are all individuals who will be alive at the Lord’s second coming. This interpretation rests on the view that πάντα τά ἔθνη means “all humankind,” not just all non-Jews, in Matthew 24:9, 14 and 28:19–20. Supporting this view, Carson takes the phrase in “its basic sense of ‘tribes,’ ‘nations,’ or ‘peoples’ … thereby including Jews.”[56] But this overlooks the fact that at Christ’s return the living Jews will be judged in a separate judgment (Ezek. 20:34–48).

All non-Jews. In this view the ἔθνη are Gentiles who may or may not have believed. Their works will reveal whether they are believers. This is in accord with the most common meaning of τά ἔθνη in the Gospels, and it recognizes the unique role of the Jews during the preceding tribulation period.[57]

The third article in this series will discuss the identity of “the least of these brothers of mine” (Matt. 25:40, NIV).

Notes

1. Eugene W. Pond, “The Background and Timing of the Judgment of the Sheep and Goats,” Bibliotheca Sacra 159 (April-June 2002): 201-20.
2. For a discussion of the shepherd imagery in the Old Testament and the Synoptic Gospels see Eugene W. Pond, “Interpretive Issues Pertaining to the Judgment of Sheep and Goats” (Ph.D. diss., Dallas Theological Seminary, 2001), 118–25.
3. Probably angels will be used to carry out the separation of the sheep from the goats and to execute the orders of the King. Matthew 25:31 mentions that “all the angels” will accompany the Son of Man when He returns.
4. Homer A. Kent, “Matthew,” in The New Testament and Wycliffe Bible Commentary, 4th ed. (New York: Iversen-Norman, 1973), 93; and William David Davies and Dale C. Allison Jr., A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel according to St. Matthew, International Critical Commentary (Edinburgh: Clark, 1988), 3:423–24. The only other occurrence in Matthew where a nominative neuter ἔθνη refers back to a personal masculine pronoun is Matthew 28:19, in which the meaning is clearly individualized as well.
5. Πρόβατον occurs thirty-seven times in the New Testament, of which eleven are in Matthew, compared to two each in Mark and Luke. Only John used it more (nineteen times), with fifteen occurrences in John 10.
6. If a sheep that falls into a pit on the Sabbath can be rescued, how much more should a person be rescued (Matt. 12:11–12); if one out of one hundred sheep strays, the shepherd will retrieve the one (18:12).
7. False prophets are wolves in sheep’s clothing (Matt. 7:15); the disciples were sent out as sheep among wolves (10:16).
8. The people were like sheep without a shepherd (Matt. 9:36); the disciples were sent to the lost sheep of the house of Israel (10:6) as was Jesus (15:24); and the sheep scatter when their shepherd is struck down (26:31).
9. Ulrich Luz, “The Final Judgment (Matt. 25:31–46): An Exercise in ‘History of Influence’ Exegesis,” in Treasures New and Old: Contributions to Matthean Studies, ed. David R. Bauer and Mark Allan Powell, trans. Dorothy Jean Weaver, vol. 1 (Atlanta: Scholars, 1996), 296–97.
10. Two examples of this from the Eastern church are Cyril and Chrysostom. Cyril of Jerusalem (ca. 313–86) proclaimed that sheep have white wool, symbolizing the newly baptized/confessed, whereas goats, like Esau, are known for their hair (Castecheses 15.24, PG 33.904). John Chrysostom (ca. 347–407) noted that the condemned are called “kids” (ἐρίφοι) rather than “goats” (τράγοι), and he commented that the kid “is unfruitful and is not able to contribute services either by its milk or by progeny, or by its hair, to those who possess it on account of the immaturity of its age” (De Diablo Tentaore 3.3, PG 49.267).
11. John Calvin, Commentary on a Harmony of the Evangelists, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, trans. William Pringle, vol. 3 (Edinburgh: Calvin Translation Society, 1845; reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1957), 176.
12. Ralph Earle, “The Gospel according to St. Matthew,” in Matthew-Acts, vol. 4 of Wesleyan Bible Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964), 108.
13. The German Bocke can be traced back to the Vulgate haedus, meaning buck or male goat. In English the term “goat” predominates; in French the term is bouc (“male goat”; Spanish has cabras (“female goat”) next to cabritos (“kid”). See Luz, “The Final Judgment (Matt. 25:31–46),” 296.
14. Ibid.
15. “In Palestine mixed flocks are customary; in the evening the shepherd separates the sheep from the goats, since the goats need to be kept warm at night, for cold harms them, while the sheep prefer open air at night” (Joachim Jeremias, The Parables of Jesus, trans. S. H. Hooke, 2d ed. [New York: Scribner, 1972], 206).
16. H. E. W. Turner, “Expounding the Parables: The Parable of the Sheep and the Goats (Matthew 25:31–46),” Expository Times 77 (May 1965–66): 244 (Turner also argues that sheep are more valuable animals); Alexander B. Bruce, “The Synoptic Gospels,” in The Expositor’s Greek Testament, ed. W. Robertson Nicoll (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1897; reprint, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, n.d.), 1:305.
17. K. Wengst, “Wie aus Bocken Ziegen wurden [Mt 25, 32f],” Evangelische Theologie 54 (994): 493-97, quoted in Luz, “The Final Judgment (Matt. 25:31–46),” 296. Gustaf Dalman reported that this takes place in autumn on the coastal plain. He added that “the black color of the goat is comparable to its stubborn character which differentiates it from the more tranquil white sheep” (Zeltleben, Vieh- und Milchwirtschaft, Jagd, Fischfang, vol. 6 of Arbeit und Sitte in Palastina [Gütersloh: Gütersloher, 1939; reprint, Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1964], 197).
18. Luz adds, “To be sure, this hypothesis is impossible to prove,” and he admits that in Matthew itself the meaning of “sheep” is unambiguous in 7:15; 10:6; and 15:24 (Luz, “The Final Judgment (Matt. 25:31–46),” 297).
19. Kathleen Weber, “The Events of the End of the Age in Matthew” (Ph.D. diss., Catholic University of America, 1994), 175. Similar judgment scenes are in Matthew 7:21–23; 25:1–13; and 25:14–30.
20. John M. Court identifies four distinctive uses of right versus left in the Old Testament and ancient Near-Eastern thought: physical separation (right hand versus left hand), directional separation (south on the right hand versus north on the left hand), metaphorical (right as strong, honest, or blessed versus left as weak, treacherous, or cursed) and inclusion (a merism: from right to left [and everything in between]) (“Right and Left: The Implications for Matthew 25:31–46, ” New Testament Studies 31 [April 1985]: 222). Matthew 25:31–46 uses physical separation to suggest the blessing and cursing of those being judged. Court proposes that the Matthean Christian community was experiencing persecution. Therefore Matthew transferred the ethic of charitable deeds taught in 6:3 (“when you give to the poor, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing”) to an eschatological standard of judgment: a person will be blessed or cursed according to the mercy shown to Christian missionaries (ibid., 229-31). Court’s proposal, however, is unlikely. The difference between right and left hands in Matthew 25 is not mutual ignorance but inclusion or exclusion from the kingdom of God.
21. Συναχθήσονται, “to gather together,” is a plural verb. When used with a plural neuter subject, it stresses individualization: each and every ἔθνος will be gathered (Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar beyond the Basics [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996], 400).
22. This occurs four times in John 11:48–52 and once in Acts 24:2. John 11:50 reads, “It is expedient for you that one man die for the people and that the whole ἔθνος not perish.”
23. For example, “In every nation [παντί ἔθνει] the man who fears Him and does what is right is welcome to Him” (Acts 10:35). This usage is also found in Acts 17:26. In Revelation the singular ἔθνος is used with φυλή (“tribe”), γλῶσσα (“tongue”), and λαός (“people”) (5:9; 7:9; 11:9; 13:7; 14:6). In Acts 2:5 the phrase describes Jews from numerous locations, that is, from “every nation.”
24. Robert H. Gundry, Matthew: A Commentary on His Handbook for a Mixed Church under Persecution, 2d ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 430; and Donald A. Hagner, Matthew 14–28, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word, 1995), 623.
25. Louis A. Barbieri Jr., “Matthew,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary, New Testament, ed. John F. Walvoord and Roy B. Zuck (Wheaton, IL: Victor, 1983), 70–71; and J. Dwight Pentecost, Thy Kingdom Come (Wheaton, IL: Victor, 1990), 226.
26. Carson, “Matthew,” 454.
27. In twenty-six occurrences the context contrasts τά ἔθνη with Jews, but there is no indication as to whether they include any believers: Acts 4:27 (specifically the Romans); 9:15; 13:46–48; 14:2, 5; 18:6; 21:11, 21; 22:21; 26:17, 20, 23; 28:28; Romans 2:14, 24; 1 Corinthians 1:23; 5:1; 12:2; 2 Corinthians 11:26; Ephesians 4:17; 1 Thessalonians 2:16; 4:5; 1 Peter 2:12; 4:3.
28. In forty-seven occurrences τά ἔθνη refers to non-Jews, often as targets of Paul’s ministry (Acts 10:45; 11:1, 18; 14:27; 15:3, 7, 12, 14, 17, 19, 23; 21:19, 25; Rom. 1:5, 13; 3:29 [twice]; 9:24, 30; 11:11–12, 13 [twice], 25; 15:9, 16 [twice], 18, 27; 16:4, 26; Gal. 1:16; 2:2, 8–9, 12, 14–15; 3:8, 14; Eph. 2:11; 3:1, 6, 8; Col. 1:27; 1 Tim. 2:7; 2 Tim. 4:17).
29. The context in Romans 15 shows that non-Jewish people are meant.
30. Acts 4:25 (citing Ps. 2:1); 14:16; Revelation 2:26; 10:11; 11:2, 9, 18 (alluding to Ps. 2:1); 12:5 (alluding to Ps. 2:9); 14:8; 15:3, 4 (alluding to Ps. 86:23); 16:19; 17:15; 18:3, 23; 19:15 (alluding to Isa. 11:4); 20:3, 8; 21:24, 26; 22:2.
31. Simeon prophesied that Jesus was God’s salvation to all peoples, which he described in two parts: “a light of revelation to τά ἔθνη [the Gentiles], and the glory of [God’s] people Israel” (Luke 2:32).
32. Jesus’ ministry in Capernaum fulfilled Isaiah’s words that He would be a light to “Galilee of the Gentiles [τῶν ἐθνῶν]” (Matt. 4:15).
33. “The rulers of the Gentiles [τῶν ἔθνῶν] lord it over them” (Matt. 20:25); “the Gentiles [τὰ ἔθνη] eagerly seek” for food and clothing (6:32; cf. Luke 12:30, “all these things the nations [τὰ ἔθνη] of the world eagerly seek”); “you will even be brought before governers and kings for My sake, as a testimony to them and to the Gentiles [τοῖς ἔθνεσιν]” (Matt. 10:18); and Jesus said He would “proclaim justice to the Gentiles [τοῖς ἔθνεσιν]” (12:18) and that “in His name the Gentiles [ἔθνη] will hope” (12:21).
34. Jesus predicted that Gentiles (i.e., the Romans) would mock, scourge, and crucify Him (Matt. 20:19; Mark 10:33; Luke 18:32).
35. These will be mostly Gentiles, “from every nation and all tribes and peoples and tongues” (Rev. 7:9). The fact that they are described as having “washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb” (v. 14) speaks of their martyrdom for Christ (Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation, New International Commentary on the New Testament [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977], 174).
36. Just before the Messiah returns Jerusalem will be beseiged by many nations (Zech. 14:1–4). Possibly, then, Luke 21:20 can be understood as a prophetic alarm: “But when [ὅταν] you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then recognize that her desolation is near.”
37. For example D. A. Carson, Exegetical Fallacies (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1984), 47–48.
38. Walter K. Price, Jesus’ Prophetic Sermon: The Olivet Key to Israel, the Church, and the Nations (Chicago: Moody, 1972), 142; William G. Carr, The Gospel of the Kingdom by Matthew (Rochester, NY: Genesee, 1896), 68–69; and Arno C. Gaebelein, The Gospel of Matthew (Wheaton, IL: Van Kampen, 1910), 246–49, although Gaebelein does not clarify what constitutes a “saved” nation.
39. Price, Jesus’ Prophetic Sermon, 142.
40. Ibid.
41. Pentecost, Things to Come, 420–21. He also notes that since the basis of the judgment is acceptance or rejection of the kingdom message, that message requires a personal response.
42. Of 111 commentators of the nineteenth century, 98 equate this judgment with the final judgment. And 562 of 602 commentators of the twentieth century do the same (Sherman W. Gray, The Least of My Brothers: Matthew 25:31–46: A History of Interpretation, Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series [Atlanta: Scholars, 1989], 246, 257). Gray identified Origen as the first to raise this problem of whether “all the nations” means all peoples of all eras or only those alive at the Lord’s return (ibid., 17-18).
43. Günther Bornkamm, Gerhard Barth, and Heinz Joachim Held, Tradition and Interpretation in Matthew, trans. Percy Scott, New Testament Library (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1963), 23. “The standard of judicial decision is the same for all concerned. At that time there is only one King and Judge, only one judgment and cursing, one eternal condemnation and one eternal life” (Wolfgang Trilling, Das Wahre Israel: Studien zur Theologie des Matthäusevangeliums, Erfurter Theologische Studien, vol. 7 [Leipzig: St. Benno, 1962], 13, author’s translation).
44. C. E. B. Cranfield, “Diakonia,” London Quarterly and Holborn Review, 6th series, 30 (October 1961): 275.
45. John R. Donahue, “The ‘Parable’ of the Sheep and the Goats: A Challenge to Christian Ethics,” Theological Studies 47 (March 1986): 11. He refers to these two parables in Matthew 13 as Matthew’s multiple images of the final judgment.
46. Jeremias, The Parables of Jesus, 209.
47. “If this parable is meant to be a program of the end, I must conclude that there is no room for a millennial kingdom; the age to come will be introduced by the return of Christ” (George E. Ladd, “The Parable of the Sheep and the Goats in Recent Interpretation,” in New Dimensions in New Testament Study, ed. Richard N. Longenecker and Merrill C. Tenney [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1974], 196).
48. Pentecost, Things to Come, 425–26.
49. John F. Walvoord, Matthew: Thy Kingdom Come (Chicago: Moody, 1974), 200.
50. Ladd, “The Parable of the Sheep and Goats in Recent Interpretation,” 196. Robert Gundry also holds this view. “Nothing in Matthew 25:31–46 indicates that the judgment of all the nations has to do with admission or nonadmission into Jesus’ millennial kingdom. On the contrary, some will go ‘into eternal punishment’ and ‘the righteous into eternal life’ (verse 46), so that ‘inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world’ (verse 34) refers more easily to the eternal state than to a millennial state” (First the Antichrist: A Book for Lay Christians Approaching the Third Millennium and Inquiring Whether Jesus Will Come to Take the Church out of the World before the Tribulation [Grand Rapids: Baker, 1997], 124; italics his).
51. Regarding the perpetuity of the millennial state, Pentecost notes that “that which characterizes the millennial age is not viewed as temporary, but eternal” (Things to Come, 490).
52. Jeremias, The Parables of Jesus, 209–10. Donahue criticizes this view as making no sense in light of the worldwide preaching of the gospel that is to precede the Lord’s coming (Matt. 24:14) (“The ‘Parable of the Sheep and the Goats,’ “ 12–13).
53. J. Ramsey Michaels, “Apostolic Hardships and Righteous Gentiles: A Study of Matt. 25:31–46, ” Journal of Biblical Literature 84 (March 1965): 28-29.
54. Robert Maddox, “Who Are the ‘Sheep’ and the ‘Goats’? A Study of the Purpose of and Meaning of Mt. 25, 31–46, ” Australian Biblical Review 13 (December 1965): 21, 25.
55. Luz, “The Final Judgment (Matt. 25:31–46),” 292–95, 307–8.
56. Carson, “Matthew,” 596. See also Gundry, First the Antichrist, 131–32.
57. This is the interpretation of most classic dispensationalists, including Pentecost, Things to Come, 417; Walvoord, Matthew: Thy Kingdom Come, 201; Carl Armerding, The Olivet Discourse of Matthew 24–25 and Other Studies (Findlay, OH: Dunham, 1955), 73–74; John Nelson Darby, The Collected Writings of J. N. Darby (Sunbury, PA: Believers Bookshelf, n.d.; reprint, n.p., 1972), 2:79–80; 10:374. One nondispensationalist who defended this view is Willoughby C. Allen, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel according to St. Matthew, International Critical Commentary (New York: Scribner, 1907), 265.