A Biblical View of Discipleship

By James G. Samra

Many churches today are interested in “doing discipleship.” Yet there seems to be confusion on what constitutes discipleship and on what the word “disciple” means. This study seeks to address this important issue in order to help readers better understand the biblical concept of discipleship and see how believers can become better disciples of Christ.

This study addresses three questions: What is discipleship? How is discipleship accomplished? What is involved in prompting discipleship? Answers to these questions will be pursued by considering several Bible passages and several biblical examples of discipleship.

What Is Discipleship?

Is discipleship a matter of becoming a disciple? Or is it the process of being a disciple? Is it the process of being educated by a teacher? Is it the process of becoming like a master? Is it a process for everyone or just a select few?

There are three reasons for this confusion. First, the word “disciple” (μαθητῆς) and its related verbal form (μαθητεύω) sometimes have an educational, intellectual sense (Matt. 10:24; 13:52), in which case “discipleship” is simply the process of being educated by a teacher. At other times (and more frequently) discipleship seems to involve life transformation (16:24; Mark 8:34; cf. 1:17–18), in which case discipleship is seen as the process of becoming like one’s master. Second, at times the focus is on the beginning of the process (Matt. 27:57; Acts 14:21), in which case discipleship is becoming a disciple. At other times (and more frequently) the focus is on being a disciple (Luke 14:26–27), in which case discipleship is the process of becoming like one’s master. Third, there are different referents for the word “disciple.” Sometimes the word speaks of those who occasionally followed Christ (Matt. 8:21).[1] In this case discipleship was a process whereby the masses learned more about Christ. Sometimes the word “disciple” is used of those select few who were being trained to be leaders of the church (17:1). In this case discipleship is the process of selecting a specific few to become as much like Christ as possible through concentrated, focused life transference.

One way this is seen is by examining Luke and Acts. In Luke 6:40 Jesus said that a fully trained disciple will be like his master. Then in Acts, Luke demonstrated how this was worked out in the lives of the disciples by drawing parallels between them and their situations and that of Jesus. For example Stephen’s death and request that God forgive his aggressors parallels Jesus’ words of forgiveness on the cross (Luke 23:34; Acts 7:59–60), Peter’s healings in Acts parallel those of Jesus in Luke, Paul’s journey to Rome is comparable in some ways to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem, and Paul’s subsequent trial before Rome follows the pattern of Jesus in certain way.[2]

Since a holistic sense of “disciple” seems to be intended as the ideal in the Gospels, so that Jesus’ disciples were becoming so much like Him that they were identified with Him,[3] a holistic sense of discipleship is necessary to encompass all the New Testament’s material on discipleship. Discipleship involves both becoming a disciple and being a disciple. At times the focus is on the entrance into the process (evangelism), but most often the focus is on growing in the process (maturity); it includes both teaching and life transformation. It is a general call for everyone and also an intense process for a select few. Therefore it is best to think of discipleship as the process of becoming like Christ.

How Is Discipleship Accomplished?

In The Gospels: Following Christ

When Jesus was physically present on earth, He stated requirements for being His disciple. He said that someone who wished to be His disciple must hate his family and his own life. In addition the person must carry his cross and come after Him. If these requirements were not met, then it was impossible for that person to be a disciple. This was because “discipleship” in the time of Jesus was accomplished by literally following Jesus around. So when Jesus said to Simon and Andrew, “Follow Me, and I will make you become fishers of men” (Mark 1:17), the proper response was for them to leave their nets and follow Him (v. 18). Being a “follower” in a metaphorical sense draws its meaning from this example of literally following Him.[4] Therefore, if one was not willing to leave his family, it was impossible for him to be a disciple. Likewise willingness to endure suffering and abandoning one’s possession were prerequisites to being a disciple, since refusal to do so physically hindered one from going with Christ where He was going (Luke 14:27, 33). These requirements demonstrate that discipleship (becoming like Christ) was accomplished by being physically with Christ.

The concept of following Jesus to become like Him is expounded in a number of passages in the Gospels. In Mark 10:39–40 Jesus indicated that to become like Him His disciples would have to go through what He would experience. Becoming like one’s master results from being a follower of him (Matt. 10:24–25). Following one’s master is also a key to succeeding in spite of obstacles. This is because success is found in the things the master tells his disciples in secret, which they proclaim to all (vv. 26–27). Jesus stated that the disciples were privileged because they could see what He did and hear what He said (13:16–17).[5] A blind man cannot guide another blind man. So rather than walking with a blind man, when one “walks” with (i.e., spends time with) his master, one will become like the master (Luke 6:39–40). Thomas became a believer[6] through his physical association with Jesus (John 20:24–28). When the disciples were apart from Christ, their activities did not go well (Matt. 14:22–24; 17:14–18; 26:36–46, 69–75).[7]

Mark recorded relatively little of Jesus’ teaching on discipleship, and yet a major theme of his Gospel is discipleship,[8] for he stressed, more than the other three Gospel writers, that the Twelve became disciples by following Christ’s example.[9] In Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem (Luke 9:51–19:41) Luke recorded a significantly large amount of Jesus’ teaching on discipleship issues. At the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of the travelogue Jesus called others to follow Him (9:23–27, 57–62; 14:25–33; 18:18–30). Those who wished to become like Christ must go with Him to Jerusalem, where He would suffer and die. Discipleship then is a journey that is taken with Jesus, a journey in which one suffers before arriving in glory. In the Fourth Gospel the “beloved disciple” was a model disciple,[10] with a close relationship to Jesus.[11]

Therefore in the Gospels discipleship (the process of becoming like Christ) was accomplished by being physically with Christ, seeing what He did, hearing what He said, being corrected by Him, and following His example.

In The Rest Of The New Testament: Imitation

After Jesus ascended to heaven, He was no longer physically present with His disciples, which necessitated a change in the idea of discipleship. This change manifests itself in a change in terminology. The word “disciple” is not used outside of the Gospels, except in Acts where it is a technical term referring to all believers.[12] Yet the goal of the Christian life is to become like Christ,[13] just as this was stressed in the Gospels (Rom. 8:29; 1 Cor. 15:49; 2 Cor. 3:18; Eph. 4:13–15; Col. 3:9–10; 1 John 3:2).

In the Gospels becoming like Christ was accomplished by physically going where He went, seeing what He did, hearing what He said. But in Acts and the Epistles, because Christ was not physically present, becoming like Him could not be accomplished by spending time with Him.

Instead of the word “disciple,” a new but related concept was brought to the forefront, namely, the concept of imitation.[14] Several words express this idea: μιμέομαι (“to use as a model; imitate, emulate, follow,” 2 Thess. 3:7–9; Heb. 13:7; 3 John 11); μιμητής (“one who imitates someone else; does what that person does,” 1 Cor. 4:16; 11:1; Eph. 5:1; 1 Thess. 1:6; 2:14; Heb. 6:12); and συμμιμητής (“one who joins with others in following an example,” Phil. 3:17).[15] In other passages (e.g., 1 Cor. 7:7–11; Gal. 4:12–20; Phil. 4:9; James 5:10–11) these terms are not used, but the concept of doing what another did is present.[16] In some of these verses the person to be imitated is not physically present, whether God (Eph. 5:1), Christ (1 Pet. 2:21), Abraham (Rom. 4:12; Heb. 6:12), or the prophets (James 5:10–11).[17] In other verses the object of imitation is someone who was or had been physically present with the readers (1 Cor. 4:16; 2 Cor. 12:18; Gal. 4:12; Phil. 3:17; 4:9; 2 Thess. 3:7–9; Heb. 13:7; 3 John 11).[18] Two important verses combine these ideas: “You also became imitators of us and of the Lord” (1 Thess. 1:6), and “Be imitators of me, just as I also am of Christ” (1 Cor. 11:1).

Imitation then is similar to discipleship in the sense that it is the process of transferring one’s lifestyle to the next generation. Having progressed in the process of imitating Christ, Paul encouraged his converts to imitate him.

These two different objects for imitation imply that there are two different parts to the process: learning and incarnation.[19] Though Abraham, the prophets, and Christ are not physically present, believers today can learn from their examples in the Scriptures,[20] and thus become more like Christ. In addition, as less mature believers interact with more mature believers who are incarnating Christ’s character, the less mature believer becomes more like Christ. Seeing the truths of Christianity lived out in someone makes these truths real. Fowl describes this two-pronged “imitation” strategy: “New converts cannot be expected to have mastered the demands of their new faith and the practices needed to live in accord with these demands in their day-to-day lives. Such converts will need both instruction in their new faith and concrete examples of how to embody that faith in the various contexts in which they find themselves…. No amount of abstract verbal instruction can bring about mastery of a craft without the concrete example of a master to imitate.”[21]

This sheds light on one of the reasons for Christ’s incarnation. He came to die for the sins of the world, but He also came to teach people how to live and to demonstrate for them what their lives are to be like, while providing the power to accomplish that goal.[22] So when Christ was on the earth, discipleship involved His providing both the necessary teaching (disciples were His students) and the necessary incarnated example (disciples were His followers). Then after Christ ascended, the New Testament language switched to an emphasis on “imitation.”[23] These two aspects of discipleship are still evident in that Christians are commanded (a) to learn about Christ through teaching, preaching, and studying and (b) to imitate those who are like Him. Both parts are still essential, but they can be carried out separately. Therefore Paul taught the Romans what Christ had done, but he did not suggest they imitate him, since they had not personally lived near him. Also Timothy could live the Christlike life modeled for him by Paul and be a model for the Corinthian Christians without being the primary teacher of the community at Corinth (1 Cor. 4:16–17).[24]

Summary

Discipleship is the process of becoming like Christ. During the time of Christ this was accomplished by literally following Him and hearing what He taught and watching what He did. After Jesus’ ascension the process of becoming like Christ involved studying what He said and did and imitating His example. It also involved seeing Christlikeness lived out in mature believers and becoming more Christlike through imitating them. Discipleship/imitation seems to take place on a large scale (all the followers of Christ or all believers in a particular church) and at the same time it takes place on a more focused scale with a select few (e.g., the Twelve, Timothy, Titus, and others).

What Is Involved in Helping Someone Become like Christ?

Helping others become like Christ is a seemingly overwhelming task. In what areas can one believer help another? Is there a list of things to teach, a set of assignments to give, or a set curriculum to follow? How long does it take? What is involved? These important questions are not specifically addressed in the Bible. No set of lessons or topics is listed, and no certain skills are prescribed. Yet the Bible does have some clues that give insight into the process of prompting or nurturing discipleship.[25]

Old Testament Background

While discipleship terminology is rare in the Old Testament, the concept is there. The Old Testament often speaks of walking in the ways of another, whether for good or evil (Judg. 2:17; 2 Kings 21:21; 2 Chron. 20:32).[26] Wilkins notes that Samuel (1 Sam. 19:20–24), Elisha (2 Kings 4:1, 38; 9:1), Isaiah (Isa. 8:16; 50:4), Jeremiah (Jer. 36:32), and Ezra (Ezra 7:6, 11) each had their followers.[27] In addition to these examples from Israel’s social structure, two one-on-one relationships are noteworthy.[28]

Moses and Joshua. The Bible refers to Joshua as Moses’ aide or servant (Exod. 24:13; 33:11; Num. 11:28; Josh. 1:1),[29] even from his youth. Joshua served with Moses, accompanying him on the mountain and leading in his place (Josh. 17:8) and on his behalf (Num. 32:28). Moses commissioned Joshua in the sight of the people and gave him authority from God (27:18–23). Moses taught Joshua lessons Moses himself had learned from God (Deut. 3:21; 31:7–8). Moses rebuked Joshua for narrow-minded thinking (Num. 11:28–29; cf. Mark 9:38–41) and gave him a spirit of wisdom (Deut. 34:9). Moses was instructed to strengthen and encourage Joshua (1:38; 3:28), both giving and teaching him the Law in order to make Joshua the leader he needed to be (Josh. 1:7).[30] “Just as the Lord had commanded Moses his servant, so Moses commanded Joshua, and so Joshua did; he left nothing undone of all that the Lord had commanded Moses” (11:15).

Elijah and Elisha. God told Elijah whom to choose as his successor (1 Kings 19:16). Elijah’s call of Elisha, comparable to Jesus’ call of His disciples, meant that Elisha had to leave everything and follow Elijah (vv. 19–21; 2 Kings 2:2, 6). Because of their close relationship Elisha referred to Elijah as his father (2:12). Elisha was so influenced by Elijah that when Elijah departed Elisha asked for a double portion of Elijah’s spirit (v. 9). Elijah, like Joshua, did things similar to what his master had done, thereby confirming that he had become like his master.[31]

New Testament Epistles

Some writers have attempted to find in the Epistles one dominant theme relating to imitation. But the Epistles focus on several themes in relation to what believers should imitate.[32]

Humility, self-sacrifice, and unconditional love. Paul admonished the Corinthian believers to imitate him as he imitated Christ (1 Cor. 11:1). This verse comes at the end of a discussion about releasing one’s own desires and freedoms, and doing only those things that do not offend others. To imitate Paul and Christ is to seek the good of others and not one’s own good (cf. Matt. 20:28). Paul wrote, “Therefore I exhort you, be imitators of me” (1 Cor. 4:16). This verse comes at the end of Paul’s first diatribe against the Corinthian church, in which he spoke against the strife and division in the church brought about by pride.[33] Paul said he had served them (v. 1) even though as an apostle he had a right to lord it over them. By serving each other they would be imitators of Paul.

The theme of serving others is seen in 2 Corinthians 12:17–18. Apparently Paul had taught Titus not to exploit the Corinthian church, and therefore Titus was following the example set for him by Paul. Rather than seek his own gain, Paul self-sacrificially loved the church at Corinth. In Philippians 2:3–4 Paul encouraged Christians to consider others better than themselves and to serve others’ interests above their own. To serve others is to follow the example that Christ set, as expounded in verses 5–9. Ephesians 5:1 states that believers are to be imitators of God because God demonstrated unconditional love for them. This self-sacrificial, unconditional love is to govern the husband-wife, child-parent, and slave-master relationships discussed in 5:22–6:8.

Commitment to serving God. Paul’s single-minded commitment to serving God is seen in 1 Corinthians 7:7–11, where he stated that he wished that others would follow his example of being unmarried so that they might be fully devoted to God as well. Paul urged the Philippians to imitate him as he earnestly sought to become like Christ (Phil. 3:17). Paul rejected the things of this world (v. 8) and sought desperately to have full knowledge of Jesus Christ and to be transformed by the power that raised Him from the dead (v. 10). He wanted the Philippians to follow him in this endeavor.

Receiving and sharing the gospel with joy. In 1 Thessalonians 1:6 Paul commended believers for imitating him by receiving his message with joy in spite of great suffering. As a result, “the word of the Lord has sounded forth from you, not only in Macedonia and Achaia, but also in every place your faith toward God has gone forth” (v. 8).

Holy living and lives of faith. Paul wrote that the Thessalonians should imitate his example of hard work rather than submit to the sin of laziness (2 Thess. 3:7–9). The leaders of the community to which Hebrews was written were models to be imitated (Heb. 13:7). The author of Hebrews encouraged his readers to imitate those who through faith and patience inherit what is promised (6:12). The many Old Testament believers mentioned in Hebrews 11 who through faith accomplished great things are held up as models to follow. Third John 11 exhorts Christians not to imitate what is evil (refusing to show hospitality, being divisive, speaking maliciously of others) but to imitate what is good. In Galatians 4:12 Paul urged his readers to become like him in living by faith rather than seeking to achieve merit legalistically (Rom. 4:12).

Paul wrote, “The things you have learned and received and heard and seen in me, practice these things” (Phil. 4:9). Paul encouraged Timothy to follow the example of good doctrine that he had been taught (1 Tim. 4:6) and to be an example to others “in speech, conduct, love, faith, and purity” (v. 12). Paul had modeled Christlikeness before Titus, and so Titus was to be “an example of good deeds” (Titus 2:7) to others, including older men and women and younger men and women. These groups, including slaves, were in turn to exhibit Christlikeness to others (vv. 1–10).

Suffering for Christ. Peter stated that believers should imitate Christ and endure suffering without sinning or seeking revenge (1 Pet. 2:21–23). Paul commended the Thessalonians for being imitators of the churches in Judea who endured great suffering because of their faith (1 Thess. 2:14). James lifted up Job and the prophets as examples to be imitated in the midst of suffering (James 5:10–11).

Paul

Two things should be noted about Paul’s practice of doing discipleship.[34] Though as an apostle he was in a position of leadership within the church, he treated other believers as equals in the body of Christ. For example he referred to Timothy and Silvanus as apostles with him, even though they were clearly subordinate to him in both authority and Christian maturity. He called Apollos a coworker (1 Cor. 3:5–9) and Timothy a fellow worker (1 Thess. 3:2) and a brother (2 Cor. 1:1; Col. 1:1), even though Timothy was his son in the faith (1 Tim. 1:2; 2 Tim. 1:2).

Nowhere did Paul identify the role of “discipler” as a spiritual gift or as an office of the church. Rather all Christians, both those imitating and those being imitated, are equal in the body of Christ. Paul’s ability to hold these two in tension is a helpful example for spiritually mature leaders, who must acknowledge that they are on an equal footing with even the most immature Christian.

The second aspect of Paul’s practice of discipleship was his willingness to invite people to imitate him.[35] Though not the founder of Christianity, he could call others to imitate him as he imitated Christ.

In so far as Paul calls on his converts to imitate him and he fails to reach his own highest standards there is an obvious problem. It is this very danger that inhibits preachers today in summoning their converts to imitate them. But as we have argued earlier if Paul did not set the pattern of his own life before his converts there was no other actual pattern he could set. To outline in words the behavior of Jesus would not have provided an example sufficiently concrete for them to turn into action. In any case Jesus had lived in a different culture from Paul’s converts and had never encountered many of their problems. Paul had to translate both by precept and example the behavior of Jesus into a new culture. If at times he failed we must recollect that he was not divine but human.[36]

Jesus

Jesus is the discipler par excellence.[37] Significant observations about discipleship can be made from the way Jesus transferred His character to His followers, particularly the Twelve.

Similarity to epistolary themes. The themes that were highlighted earlier regarding imitation in the Epistles are seen in Jesus’ ministry as well. That a disciple is to learn to follow Christ in humility, self-sacrifice, and unconditional love is presented in Mark 10:35–44; Luke 10:25–37; and John 13:1–17, and is modeled in His death. Jesus taught that a disciple must be fully committed to God (Matt. 6:24; 8:18–22). He highlighted the need for His disciples to receive and share the gospel joyfully. This is seen in His calling Peter and Andrew to be “fishers of men” (4:19), His sending His followers on evangelistic missions (Luke 9:1–6; 10:1–24), and His sending them into the world to be His witnesses (Matt. 28:19–20; John 17:18; Acts 1:8). Jesus spoke often with His disciples about their need for holy living (one such example is the Sermon on the Mount). And He taught that they too must suffer (Matt. 16:21–26; Mark 10:38–39; John 15:18–20).

Jesus’ choice of disciples. His disciples did not choose Him; He chose them. This is remarkable since it is foreign to the way people became disciples of other teachers in the ancient world.[38]

There were three levels of discipleship.[39] The first level consisted of those who believed in Jesus as the Messiah and “occasional companions at convenient, particularly festive, seasons.”[40] The second level consisted of those who engaged in uninterrupted fellowship with Jesus, by abandoning their possessions and occupations in order to be with Him.[41] The third and highest level of discipleship was those who were chosen as the Twelve to be trained for the work of apostleship. And in the Twelve an additional smaller group of three (Peter, James, and John) were selected to be closest to Christ. They were granted special privileges, and Peter was designated a leader in a unique sense (Matt. 16:17–19). Being a follower was an opportunity for everyone, and yet it was reserved at its highest level for a select few,[42] who were chosen and commissioned to minister for Christ after He was gone.

The Twelve whom Christ chose were uneducated fishermen, despised tax collectors, and religious zealots (the latter two, Matthew and Simon, were at opposite ends of the political spectrum). At the beginning these men were “exceedingly ignorant, narrow-minded, superstitious, full of Jewish prejudices, misconceptions and animosities,”[43] and yet Christ chose them.

Costs of being Christ’s disciples. Jesus did not hesitate to tell those who would be His disciples that such a decision would cost them all they possessed, that it would supersede all other relationships,[44] and that it would involve suffering, rejection, and self-denial.

Benefits of being Jesus’ disciples. The disciples were given special privileges.[45][ They were allowed to see things others did not see and to hear things others did not hear, resulting in their becoming more like Christ in a unique way (Luke 9:28–36; cf. 2 Pet. 1:16–21). In addition they were promised a reward which they could only imagine (Matt. 19:28–30; Luke 18:29–30). Those who do much will be rewarded with much (Matt. 25:14–30).

Jesus’ teaching. Two observations can be made about Jesus’ teaching in relation to discipleship.[46] First, He taught systematically. That is, He taught large amounts of material in single settings with unified themes. The Sermon on the Mount is an example of this.[47] The Gospel of Matthew includes five major discourses, which contain Jesus’ teaching on holy living (chaps. 5–7), doing ministry (chap. 10), bearing fruit and the nature of the kingdom of God (chap. 13), avoiding hypocrisy (chap. 23), and end times (chaps. 24–25). The Book of Luke includes Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem (9:51–19:41), with His instruction on such themes as ministry, prayer, money, loving sinners, and the cost of being a disciple. In the Upper Room Discourse (John 14–16) Jesus taught about the Holy Spirit, abiding in Christ, the relationship of the Son to the Father, and suffering with Christ.[48] The themes in these major blocks of teaching ought to be taught to succeeding generations of Christians to help them become like Christ.[49]

Second, Jesus also taught occasionally, that is, He often taught truths when an occasion arose. Whether it was a question from the crowd, a fig tree that did not bloom, or a mistake by His disciples, Jesus turned almost every situation into an opportunity to teach His disciples. This type of teaching was possible as the disciples spent extended time with Him.

Jesus’ shepherding of His disciples. At the beginning of His discipling the main responsibility of Jesus’ disciples was to watch and listen. They learned by sitting at their Master’s feet and watching how He handled various situations. At the end of particular incidents they were given opportunity to ask questions and receive insight (Mark 7:17). Sharing the good news of salvation was woven throughout their entire discipleship experience, even from the very beginning of their time with Jesus (Matt. 9:10–11; John 1:43). This is because as disciples of Christ they were to be fishers of men, that is, disciples who made disciples.

Jesus also encouraged the Twelve to attempt various things themselves. If they failed He corrected them,[50] and when they were successful He rejoiced. Examples of such activities include Peter’s attempt to walk on water (Matt. 14:28–31), the failure of the disciples to cast out a demon (Luke 9:37–45), and the evangelistic missions of the Twelve and the Seventy (9:1–6; 10:1–20).

Jesus always protected the disciples, whether from the accusations of the Pharisees (Mark 2:18–28) or the storms of nature (Luke 8:22–25). Being with Jesus was a safe environment in which to learn, to ask questions, to fail, and to succeed. He even made provision for them after He would no longer be with them (John 14–16).

Summary

Discipleship is the process whereby someone becomes more like Christ. It encompasses both the entry into the process (salvation) and growth in the process (sanctification). True discipleship has two components. The first is teaching about Christ: who He is, what He did, and what He taught as recorded in Scripture, and teaching about those who were excellent models of being like Him. This can be done through sermons, books, letters, personal and small-group Bible studies, Sunday school, and in formal and informal settings. The second component is imitating those who manifest the nature of Christ in their lives and are living out the truths of Christianity. Discipling can be conveyed by mature believers to less mature believers in small groups or with one person, through intensely personal relationships whereby evangelism, humility, suffering for Christ, and other subjects are taught, discussed, exemplified, tested. These discussions can be systematic but are often occasional. And the process may also include correction and reward.

All Christians are disciples and are called to participate in the discipleship process, both by receiving instruction and living out their faith for others to see and imitate. Those who are mature in the faith have the responsibility on the one hand to participate in educating and modeling other believers, and on the other hand to ensure that their Christlike character is being passed on to a select few individuals whom God has entrusted to them.

Notes

1. Μαθητῆς is used in relationship to others besides those who followed Jesus, including followers of John the Baptist (Mark 2:18), the Pharisees (2:18), and Moses (John 9:28).
2. James B. Pohill, Acts, New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman, 1992), 69–70. For a more detailed comparison see R. F. O’Toole, “Parallels between Jesus and His Disciples in Luke-Acts: A Further Study,” Biblische Zeitscrift 27 (1983): 195-212.
3. “Discipleship to Jesus was not like discipleship to a Jewish rabbi. The rabbis bound themselves to the Torah; Jesus bound his disciples to himself. The rabbis offered something outside of themselves; Jesus offered himself alone…. Discipleship to Jesus involved far more than following in his retinue; it meant nothing less than complete personal commitment to him and his message” (George Ladd, A Theology of the New Testament, rev. ed. [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993], 105–6).
4. “For their part, the disciples find that ‘following Jesus’ is mostly about being ‘with’ Jesus—learning from him, becoming socialized anew according to the new world order his ministry serves, propagates, and anticipates—all in preparation for their role as witnesses in the Acts of the Apostles” (Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke, New International Commentary on the New Testament [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997], 24).
5. Robert H. Gundry, Matthew: A Commentary on His Handbook for a Mixed Church under Persecution, 2d ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994), 7.
6. Believing is the key to discipleship in John’s Gospel, and thus when Thomas believed it was a discipleship issue.
7. Terence L. Donaldson, “Guiding Readers—Making Disciples: Discipleship in Matthew’s Strategy,” in Patterns of Discipleship in the New Testament, ed. Richard N. Longenecker (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1996), 42.
8. For more detailed explanations of Mark’s emphasis on discipleship see Ernest Best, Disciples and Discipleship: Studies in the Gospel according to Mark (Edinburgh: Clark, 1986), 1–16; and Larry W. Hurtado, “Following Jesus in the Gospel of Mark—And Beyond,” in Patterns of Discipleship in the New Testament, 9–29.
9. This also explains the contrast between the disciples’ constant failure and Jesus’ constant success as highlighted by Mark.
10. He was the model disciple for several reasons: Jesus entrusted His mother into John’s care (John 19:26–27), he was the only male disciple to witness the crucifixion (vv. 34–35), he was the first of the disciples to arrive at the empty tomb and to believe (20:2–8), he recognized Jesus in His resurrected form (21:7), and he was spoken of highly (vv. 20–22) (Leon Morris, The Gospel according to John, rev. ed., New International Commentary on the New Testament [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995], 6).
11. George R. Beasley-Murray, John, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word, 1989), lxx.
12. Richard N. Longenecker suggests that because Jesus was no longer present with His followers, they were perhaps reluctant to refer to a “master-disciple” or “teacher-pupil” relationship (see Matt. 23:8–10) except as technical terms for Christians, all of whom are disciples of one Master (“Taking Up the Cross Daily: Luke-Acts,” in Patterns of Discipleship in the New Testament, 72–73). This may be confirmed by the fact that the term “disciple” is not used outside of the Gospels and Acts. John, Paul, Peter, and others never spoke of their own followers or learners as disciples. Does this indicate that this may not be the best term for believers to use today?
13. For discussion of this goal from a theological perspective see Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 845–46; Millard Erickson, Christian Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1985), 970; and Anthony A. Hoekema, “Reformed Perspective,” in Five Views on Sanctification, ed. Melvin E. Dieter (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987), 66–68. For a discussion of this goal from the perspective of New Testament ethics see Richard B. Hays, The Moral Vision of the New Testament (San Francisco: HaperSanFrancisco, 1996).
14. This concept was well known in the ancient world. See Plato, The Republic, 539b; Aristophanes, Birds, 1285; Demosthenes, Against Androtion, 78; Isocrates, To Demonicus, 11; Xenophon, Memorabilia of Socrates 1.2.3; Wisdom of Solomon 4:2; 4 Maccabees 9:23; Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews 8.187; Philo, The Sacrifice of Abel and Cain, 65; and Tacitus, TheHistory, 4.42. For other examples from antiquity see Michael J. Wilkins, Discipleship in the Ancient World and Matthew’s Gospel, 2d ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995); Willis Peter De Boer, The Imitation of Paul (Kampen: J. H. Kok, 1962), 1–16; and Elizabeth A. Castelli, Imitating Paul: A Discourse of Power (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1991), 59–88.
15. See Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida, eds., Greek-English Lexicon Based on Semantic Domains (New York: United Bible Societies, 1988), 41.44-41.49.
16. A number of passages fit into this category, including Ephesians 5:22–33; Philippians 2:4–9; 1 Peter 1:16–17; 1 John 3:16–18; and perhaps even all of the Pastorals from a literary point of view. On the latter see Jerry L. Sumney, “Imitation,” in Dictionary of the Later New Testament and Its Developments, ed. Ralph P. Martin and Peter H. Davids (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1997), 534.
17. Imitating what is “good” (1 Pet. 3:13) and imitating other churches (1 Thess. 2:14) probably belong in this category, although the latter might fit in the next category.
18. Not surprisingly, then, in Paul’s letters to the Thessalonians, Corinthians, and Philippians, he wrote about imitation because he had spent time with them. However, he wrote little about this in Romans and Colossians, congregations he had not visited before he wrote to them.
19. This is similar to the two senses of the word “disciple” as used in the Gospels (Walter Bauer, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3d ed., rev. Frederick W. Danker [Chicago: University Press, 2000], 609–10).
20. Oral traditions on Christ’s life would have been available to even the earliest believers.
21. S. E. Fowl, “Imitation,” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. Gerald F. Hawthorne, Ralph P. Martin, and Daniel G. Reid (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1993), 430.
22. Through the death of Christ believers receive the power to become like Christ, as they imitate Him in His death and resurrection and love God by having their actions transformed by Christ (Karl Barth, The Epistle to the Romans, 6th ed., trans. Edwyn C. Hoskyns [New York: Oxford University Press, 1968], 323–24).
23. The New Testament also turns its focus from the work of Christ Himself personally in the discipleship process to that of the Holy Spirit, who is accomplishing the work of making Jesus’ disciples like Him (John 16:9–10).
24. The two aspects of teaching and modeling have precedent in the ancient world. Philo wrote, “Therefore, he [Moses] trained and instructed all the people who were in subjection to himself in precepts of fellowship, the most excellent of all lessons, exhibiting to them his own life as an archetypal model for them to copy” (On the Virtues, 51, in The Works of Philo, trans. C. D. Yonge [Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993], 644–45). Philo then wrote of Moses’ relationship with Joshua as “his most excellent pupil and the imitator of his amiable and excellent disposition” (ibid., 66).
25. The first stage in making disciples, of course, is winning people to Christ. However, this study focuses on the process of taking those who are less mature in the faith and helping them become more like Christ.
26. Of specific note is that many of the kings after David were spoken of as either walking in the way of David or not walking in the way of David. Since he was a man after God’s own heart (possible imitation language), he in some ways was the incarnation of what God desired and this incarnation was available for all future kings to see and imitate (De Boer, TheImitation of Paul, 29–41).
27. Michael J. Wilkins, “Discipleship,” in Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, ed. Joel B. Green, Scot McKnight, and I. Howard Marshall (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1992), 176. For a detailed defense and examination of this background see Wilkins, Discipleship in the Ancient World and Matthew’s Gospel, 43–91.
28. It is interesting to note that both of these relationships took place at key times in Israel’s history.
29. The Hebrew word מְשָׁת means “one who serves” or “an assistant.” The same designation is used of Elisha (1 Kings 19:21).
30. Joshua did a number of things he had seen and learned from Moses, including crossing impassable water, spying out the land, and giving copies of the Law. In addition Joshua, like Moses, was blessed by God (Josh. 4:14).
31. Immediately Elisha parted the same river that Elijah had parted on their way to Elijah’s ascension; also both of them performed a miracle of multiplying oil.
32. For examples Eduard Schweizer, Lordship and Discipleship (Naperville, IL: Allenson, 1960); A. T. Robertson and Alfred Plummer, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, International Critical Commentary (New York: Scribners, 1911), 90; Gordon D. Fee, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, New International Critical Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 186; and Fowl, “Imitation,” 428. For a different but similar list see Roy B. Zuck, Teaching as Paul Taught (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), 121–22.
33. Interestingly some argue against doing today as Paul did, that is, believers inviting others to imitate them, because, they say, it will lead to Christians identifying themselves too much with other humans and not with Christ. Yet even though this was exactly the situation that was occurring in Corinth (1 Cor. 1:12), Paul chose explicit imitation language as part of the solution (4:16–17).
34. The material that follows is taken from Ernest Best, Paul and His Converts (Edinburgh: Clark, 1988).
35. Some believers today may hesitate to follow Paul’s example of asking others to imitate them as they imitate Christ, given his unique position as an apostle. However, the following are reasons believers need not hesitate to follow Paul’s example. First, several people who are not apostles are set forth in the Bible as examples to be followed, including Abraham, Elijah, and Job. Second, this pattern of personal, nonapostolic imitation continued in the second century (To the Smyrnaeans, 10.1; 12:1, Martyrdom of Polycarp, 19:1, 1 Clement 17:1). Third, Paul’s own shortcomings (Phil. 3:12) did not hinder him from inviting others to follow him (v. 17). Fourth, because Christ indwells believers (Rom. 8:10; Gal. 2:20; Eph. 3:16; Col. 1:27), they can invite others to follow Christ by following them. For other arguments see Brian J. Dodd, “The Story of Christ and the Imitation of Paul in Philippians 2–3, ” in Where Christology Began, ed. Ralph P. Martin and Brian J. Dodd (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998), 154–61; and Roy B. Zuck, Teaching as Paul Taught (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998), 120–23.
36. Best, Paul and His Converts, 149–50.
37. While Jesus is a discipler par excellence, it is important to note that His discipling of others took place within different parameters than in the post-Easter world. First, He did not have the Holy Spirit indwelling His disciples the same way that the Spirit would come after Pentecost. Therefore to teach a disciple only what Jesus taught is not enough (John 16:12–16). Second, Jesus did not have Christian communities to aid Him in the discipleship process. After the Spirit comes, no discipleship takes place outside of the communities of faith and the goal of the communities themselves is to make people like Christ (Eph. 4:13). Perhaps the reason Jesus made provision for both the Spirit and for the church was the absolute necessity of both for accomplishing discipleship. Jesus’ unique stature as discipler can be seen in the overwhelmingly high frequency of usage of the word μαθητῆς in the four Gospels with respect to Jesus’ followers, its use in the Septuagint, the Qumran scrolls, and intertestmental literature, and the lack of usage of the term in early-church writings. For a discussion of the usage outside the Gospels see John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew, vol. 3 (New York: Doubleday, 2001), 41–47. Analyzing how Jesus discipled His followers is an extensive study. A commendable example of such a study is A. B. Bruce, The Training of the Twelve, 4th ed. (1928; reprint, Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1988). J. Dwight Pentecost’s discussion of Jesus as a discipler is helpful, although the present writer does not agree with Pentecost’s distinction between “believers” and “disciples” (Design for Discipleship [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1977]). See also Mark L. Bailey, To Follow Him: The Seven Marks of a Disciple (Sisters, OR: Multnomah, 1997).
38. Gerald F. Hawthorne, “Imitation of Christ: Philippians,” in Patterns of Discipleship in the New Testament, 165; Wilkins, “Discipleship,” 187; Craig Blomberg, Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1997), 234; and Schweitzer, Lordship and Discipleship, 14. For the uniqueness of Jesus in contrast to His Jewish contemporaries, see Martin Hengel, The Charismatic Leader and His Followers, trans. James Grieg (New York: Crossroad, 1981), and Roy B. Zuck, Teaching as Jesus Taught (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995), 46–57.
39. Meier pictures these groups as being in concentric circles, with the crowds being in the largest circle, the occasional followers and supporters in the middle circle, and those that responded to the highest form of discipleship, the Twelve, in the inner circle (A Marginal Jew, 3:80–82, 125).
40. Bruce, The Training of the Twelve, 11.
41. There was both a universal call of discipleship for everyone to be followers of Christ and also the selection of a few to leave all their possessions and follow Him.
42. Similarly Paul encouraged entire churches to imitate his life and yet he chose individuals, including Timothy, Luke, and Epaphras, to have a unique relationship with him. Moses had the whole nation of Israel as his disciples (John 9:28), and yet God chose Joshua to be Moses’ disciple in a unique way.
43. Bruce, The Training of the Twelve, 14.
44. For Jesus’ demands in relation to family relationships see Stephen C. Barton, Discipleship and Family Ties in Mark and Matthew, Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994). See also Meier, A Marginal Jew, 3:50–72, for a discussion of other costs.
45. This is especially a Marcan theme, as seen in Mark 4:10–12, 33–34; and 10:29–31 (Ladd, A Theology of the New Testament, 235).
46. For additional insights from Jesus as a teacher see Zuck, Teaching as Jesus Taught.
47. For a defense of the Sermon on the Mount as a unified teaching of Jesus, as opposed to a compilation by Matthew, see W. D. Davies, The Setting of the Sermon on the Mount, Brown Judaic Studies (Atlanta: Scholars, 1989).
48. As noted earlier, Mark’s Gospel does not include teaching on discipleship. Mark’s concern was more with showing discipleship in action. For an excellent treatment of discipleship in Mark, see Best, Disciples and Discipleship.
49. Zuck, Teaching as Jesus Taught, 97–101.
50. Ibid., 123-27.