Christ as Αρχή in Revelation 3:14

By Michael J. Svigel

[Michael J. Svigel is a Bible teacher in Dallas, Texas.]

While non-Trinitarians have often cited Revelation 3:14 (Christ as “the ἀρχή of the creation of God”) as evidence that the Son is a created being,[1] Trinitarian scholars have not agreed on how best to translate or interpret the phrase. Further compounding the problem, the recent third edition of Bauer’s A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature makes a startling change under its definition for ἀρχή. The earlier second edition cites Revelation 3:14 under the meaning “the first cause” with the following note: “but the meaning beginning=first created is linguistically possible.”[2] In the third edition, however, the alternative meaning for ἀρχή in this verse is changed from “linguistically possible” to “linguistically probable” without amending any of the cited evidence.[3] In light of these problems, and bearing in mind that Revelation 3:14 is a verse of significant Christological import, this article examines the interpretational issues essential to discovering the most probable rendering of the phrase “the ἀρχή of the creation of God” (ἡ ἀρχή τῆς κτίσεως τοῦ θεοῦ).

Survey of Interpretations

Modern commentators and translations have suggested at least six meanings of ἀρχή.[4]

Αρχή as Origin

Most commentators understand ἀρχή to mean source or origin,[5] either of the original creation of Genesis 1:1,[6] the new creation (2 Cor. 5:17; Rev. 21:1–5),[7] or both.[8]

Αρχή as Ruler

The second most common interpretation of ἀρχή in Revelation 3:14 is Christ as Ruler[9] over either the original creation[10] or the new creation.[11]

Αρχή as Beginning

A few commentators take ἀρχή as the first in a series of creatures or first part of the original creation.[12] For those who maintain the deity of the Son, κτίσις (creation) is limited to the new creation begun in Christ.[13]

Αρχὴ as Mediate Agent

Attempting to reconcile Revelation 3:14 with passages of the New Testament that portray Christ not as the Creator but as the Father’s mediate agent in creation, some commentators understand ἀρχή as the mediate agent or secondary source.[14]

Αρχή as Philosophical “Principle”

Relying on a technical philosophical use of ἀρχή among classical writers, some take Revelation 3:14 to mean Christ is the “elementary principle” of creation,[15] or the starting point of all things in a logical and ontological sense.[16]

Αρχὴ with Double Entendres

While many commentators decide on only one meaning of the phrase, others conclude that ἀρχή has a double nuance, usually some combination of the preceding meanings.[17]

Although a handful of interpretations dominate (Source, Ruler, and Beginning), the commentaries are mottled with numerous minor nuances, a fact that can cause some confusion for students of Scripture. A fresh examination of the evidence in this article will perhaps aid in discovering the most probable rendering of Revelation 3:14 and move translators and commentators toward a consensus on this matter.

Interpretive Issues

To reach that goal requires attention to the lexical, syntactical, contextual, and historical theological issues related to the interpretation of Revelation 3:14. The results suggest that the most probable interpretation of ἡ ἀρχή τῆς κτίσεως τοῦ θεοῦ is “supreme Authority over the creation of God,” encompassing both the original and new creations.

Lexical Issues

Below is a range of usages of ἀρχή in the ancient Greek-speaking world with a focus on establishing both its common and obscure nuances. To distinguish between various shades of meaning in ἀρχή, the following categories of usage are based on an examination of hundreds of individual examples from classical writings, the Septuagint, and the New Testament.[18]

Protemporal. ᾿Αρχή is most often used to indicate the temporal commencement of a particular event or series of events, that is, the earliest point in time of something.[19]

Causal. Especially prevalent in philosophical writings is the use of ἀρχή as the chronological or logical origin of something or as its underlying cause.[20]

Propartial. ᾿Αρχή is sometimes used for the first part of an object, for example the opening of a literary work (Hos. 1:2; Mark 1:1) or foundation of a building (Aristotle, Metaphysics 5.1.1).

Prosequential. This use of ἀρχή points to the first item in a series of items that do not necessarily share the same nature and qualities.[21]

Governmental. Sometimes ἀρχή means general political power or a particular office.[22] Other times the individual officeholder is in view (Gen. 1:16; Luke 12:11; Eph. 3:10; Titus 3:1).

Prospatial. This is the first part of something in a physical sense rather than a logical or chronological sense.[23]

Preeminent. Slightly different from governmental, ἀρχή can be used to indicate supremacy by nature or merit rather than merely by office (Num. 24:20).

Elemental. ᾿Αρχή may indicate a fundamental or elementary principle (Heb. 5:12; 6:1).[24]

Miscellaneous. When there are rare, doubtful, or debated uses of ἀρχή that do not fall under any of the above categories, they may be categorized as “miscellaneous.”[25]

᾿Αρχή in classical usage. Classical lexicons list many of the same types of categories for ἀρχή as those above.[26] However, the technical use of ἀρχή as the uncaused cause in many Greek metaphysical writings tends to outweigh the more conventional uses.[27] In fact, while defining a number of his key metaphysical terms, Aristotle gave an insightful synchronic summary of the various uses of ἀρχή in philosophical discussions up to his day.[28]

Αρχή in the Septuagint. In the Septuagint ἀρχή occurs at least 224 times,[29] of which the largest category is protemporal (about eighty-seven times, or 38.8 percent of the occurrences).[30] Of these protemporal uses, seventy-three occur in prepositional phrases beginning most commonly with ἀπό, ἐν, or ἐκ. The second most common use of ἀρχή in the Septuagint is governmental, occurring seventy-five times (33.5 percent).[31] Sixty-five of these uses are impersonal, referring to an office, dominion, or military company. Ten instances are personal or personified, referring to a ruler or rulers. Four of these are singular, and six are plural.[32] The Septuagint uses ἀρχή with a causal nuance only fourteen times (6 percent), all of which are anarthrous.[33] All fourteen are in the wisdom literature and do not emulate the technical philosophical use of ἀρχή common among Greek metaphysical writings. Instead they point out a logical cause behind a result.[34]

The propartial nuance of ἀρχή is employed nine times (4 percent) in the Septuagint, and all of them are anarthrous.[35] The prosequential use of ἀρχή is even less common, occurring four times (1.7 percent), all followed by a plural noun.[36] Neither the propartial nor the prosequential occurrences in the Septuagint take an article. The prospatial nuance of ἀρχή is found twenty-one times (9.3 percent), indicating the beginning of a road, the edge of a building, a camp site, and so forth.[37] ᾿Αρχή has a nuance of preeminece eight times in the Septuagint (3.5 percent).[38] Only Psalm 118:160 appears to be a debatable candidate for the elemental use of ἀρχή. There are five miscellaneous uses of ἀρχή, some of which may be quirks of the Septuagint translation.[39]

In summary the most common nuance of ἀρχή in the Septuagint is protemporal. The governmental sense follows closely in second place, while all other shades of meaning are less frequent.

᾿Αρχή in the New Testament.[40] Of the fifty-five occurrences of ἀρχή in the New Testament, twenty-eight (50.9 percent) are protemporal.[41] As in the Septuagint, the second most common use of ἀρχή in the New Testament is governmental, occurring twelve times (21.8 percent). Of these governmental uses, five refer to an office or dominion,[42] while seven refer to personal rulers, all in the plural.[43] Five (9 percent) verses have a propartial use of ἀρχή,[44] and two (3.6 percent) have a prosequential nuance, both of which are followed by a plural genitive.[45] There are two prospatial uses of ἀρχή (Acts 10:11; 11:5), one debatable use meaning preeminent (Col. 1:18), two elemental uses (Heb. 5:12; 6:1), and three uses categorized as miscellaneous (Rev. 3:14 [under consideration]; 21:6; 22:13).

As in the Septuagint the majority of the occurrences of ἀρχή in the New Testament are protemporal, with the governmental sense in the second place. Of significance is the fact that there are no clear uses of ἀρχή as causal.

᾿Αρχή in the apostolic fathers. In the writings of the apostolic fathers ἀρχή occurs at least twenty-six times.[46] Of these, sixteen are likely protemporal (61.5 percent),[47] four seem to be causal (15.4 percent),[48] five have a propartial nuance (19.2 percent),[49] and one is governmental (3.9 percent).[50] Obviously this data pool is too small to surmise the range of usage of ἀρχή based on the occurrences in the apostolic fathers alone. However, it is apparent that the protemporal use, as in the Septuagint and New Testament, stands at the fore.

Conclusions concerning the meaning of ἀρχή. While it is wrong to determine the meaning of a word in a particular context based on statistical probability alone, the data from the nuances of ἀρχή in the Septuagint, the New Testament, and the apostolic fathers show an overwhelming tendency to employ ἀρχή as a protemporal or a governmental indicator. Among the eight categories of usage in these writings, several are nonpersonal, that is, they are never used in reference to a person. These include protemporal, prospatial, causal, propartial, and elemental. Only the governmental, prosequential, and possibly the preeminent nuances are used of a person.

Although not determinative, these facts ought to be considered in any deliberation about the most probable meaning of ἡ ἀρχή τῆς κτίσεως τοῦ θεοῦ.[51] For example, although a propartial meaning (“the first part of the creation of God”) is linguistically possible, semantic considerations alone render it highly improbable, since the nuance itself is employed in only 6 percent of the 305 instances and none of these is personal. A prosequential nuance is also possible and perhaps more probable than propartial, since it is used in a personal sense. However, the prosequential use of ἀρχή occurs in conjunction with a plural genitive and is itself quite rare (2 percent of the occurrences). Thus the understanding of ἀρχή in Revelation 3:14 as “created being” is improbable. On the other hand the governmental nuance is common and personal in both singular and plural, making “the supreme Authority over the creation of God” not merely possible, but probable.

Syntactical Issues

Of special concern in Revelation 3:14 is the meaning of κτίσις, usually translated “creation.” The first question is whether κτίσις, a verbal noun, in this context focuses on its active verbal aspect (the process of creation) or its passive nominal aspect (the thing created). If it is the latter, does it indicate the whole of creation (the universe) or the sum of its elements (all creatures)?

Louw and Nida list five uses of κτίσις in the New Testament: creation, creature, universe, institution, and authority.[52] While the last two can be ruled out as highly unlikely, the first three options are possible. In the Septuagint κτίσις occurs only in the Apocrypha where it is found fifteen times.[53] Of these uses only Psalms of Solomon 8:7 stands as a clear example in which “creation” is conceived of as the “act” or “process” of creating. When it is used in the singular in constructions such as πᾶσα κτίσις, πᾶσα ἡ κτίσις, and ἡ κτίσις, the term most often means “the universe.”[54] Besides referring to creation as a whole, κτίσις may also refer to an individual creature (Wisd. of Sol. 16:24) or in the plural to all creatures severally (Tob. 8:15). In the New Testament κτίσις occurs eighteen times (excluding Rev. 3:14).[55] Of these, only Romans 1:20 most likely reflects an active nuance.[56] The other seventeen have a nominal emphasis, of which ten refer to the universe[57] and six refer to individual creatures, with Mark 16:15 difficult to determine.[58]

This survey of κτίσις in the Apocrypha and the New Testament demonstrates that its most common nuance is passive, and that it is seldom used in an active sense. Thus with regard to Revelation 3:14 an interpretation that regards κτίσις as something other than the entire universe bears the greater burden of proof. Thus understanding τοῦ θεοῦ as a subjective genitive of the verbal idea in κτίσις and then ἀρχή as prosequential (Christ as the first of God’s creative actions) is improbable. An alternative that sees τοῦ θεοῦ as a genitive of source and κτίσις as the whole universe, with ἀρχή as propartial would make better sense syntactically (Christ as the first part of the universe created by God), but it must be recalled that in the Septuagint or New Testament the propartial nuance of ἀρχή is never used of a person. A third alternative understands ἀρχή as causal (Christ as the origin of the universe of God), but the causal nuance—like the propartial—is also never used of a person. Based on these syntactical issues the most natural rendering of the phrase would be “the supreme Authority over the creation of God,” taking τῆς κτίσεως as a genitive of subordination and τοῦ θεοῦ as source or producer, an interpretation that avoids the objections against the former options.

Contextual Issues

With both the preceding lexical and syntactical considerations as guides, this section examines the broad and narrow contexts of Revelation 3:14.

For all their diversity the messages to the seven churches in Revelation 2 and 3 each follow a structure that includes (a) an introductory title of Christ, (b) a commendation of areas in which the churches excelled (exhortation and encouragement), (c) a condemnation for areas in which they were failing (warning and call to repentance), and (d) a promise to the one who overcomes (usually eschatological in nature).[59] Of particular importance for this study is the use of the introductory titles of Christ in the messages. It has been shown by many commentators that the characterization of Christ at the beginning of each message is often applicable in some way to the historical situation in the local congregation and especially to the content of its adjoining message.[60] This leads to the question of how the title for Christ in Revelation 3:14 relates to the message to Laodicea, the answer to which may help determine the most probable meaning of the title itself.[61]

In Revelation 3:14 Christ is called “The Amen, the faithful and true witness.” This portion of the introductory title is most likely drawn from Isaiah 65:16, in which God is called “the God of Amen,” and which speaks of God’s truthfulness.[62] Thus Christ is truthful, but also His truthfulness translates into faithfulness.[63] This is followed by the phrase “the ἀρχή of the creation of God.” The context of the original Isaiah passage includes new creation language to which some have pointed as the interpreting background for the meaning of ἡ ἀρχή τῆς κτίσεως τοῦ θεοῦ.[64] If Revelation 3:14 is alluding to this new-creation language, it is not difficult to see how Beale concludes that τῆς κτίσεως τοῦ θεοῦ refers to the new creation begun in Christ, of which He is the “inaugurator.”[65] In agreement with Beale the allusion to Isaiah 65:16–17 does in fact suggest that the new creation is in view in Revelation 3:14. However, such an allusion does not necessitate that only the new creation is in view.[66] Beale does not consider that the emphasis in the New Testament and especially in the Apocalypse is Christ’s rule over creation (especially the new creation) rather than His being either the first part or inaugurator of that new creation. Rather than relying strictly on the Old Testament allusions, the remainder of the letter to Laodicea must be examined with due regard for the lexical and syntactical issues considered above.

In the charge and warning of Revelation 3:15–16 Christ wished that the Laodiceans’ works were of some value.[67] While claiming to be believers, the Laodiceans were living distasteful and useless lives. In contrast to Christ, they were neither faithful nor true witnesses, resulting in condemnation.[68] In verses 17–18 Christ said that the Laodiceans claimed one thing but their conduct was in stark contrast (cf. James 2:16). While they relied on the world for their wealth and well-being, Jesus was telling them to rely instead on Him for spiritual blessings.[69] In Christ’s call to repentance (Rev. 3:19–20) He reaffirmed His love, calling them, in a picture of intimate table fellowship, to repent.[70] The promise in verses 21–22 to the “one who overcomes” is similar to the promise to the church of Thyatira (2:26–28). The idea—prevalent in the Apocalypse—is the present reign of Christ with the Father and the future reign of believers with Christ in His eternal kingdom.

This brief examination has shown that the Laodicean letter has no apparent new-creation language or theme. What is present, however, is a promise of reigning with Christ in His kingdom. This suggests that the debated phrase in Revelation 3:14 means “the supreme Authority over the creation of God,” with κτίσις referring not merely to the new creation, but also to the present world as well. The phrase ἡ ἀρχή τῆς κτίσεως τοῦ θεοῦ relates to the message to Laodicea most naturally if ἀρχή is understood in its governmental sense.

Historical Theological Context

In the preceding sections it was argued that a governmental understanding of Revelation 3:14 is the most probable interpretation based on lexical, syntactical, and contextual issues. However, such a hypothesis must be weighed against the historical theological context of the New Testament within which the passage was written and read. Of primary concern in this section is the teaching in the New Testament and in the early church about the agency of Christ in relation to creation.

The concept of the Son of God as Creator has biblical support.[71] However, Christ’s relationship to creation is most often portrayed as one of agency rather than primary source.[72] God the Father is repeatedly associated with the act of creation as the ultimate cause or unqualified initiator,[73] the Son being viewed as the personal agent through whom this activity is executed. Since this notion of Christ as the agent of creation is so prevalent in the New Testament,[74] the likelihood that ἀρχή in Revelation 3:14 means “first cause” of creation becomes less probable. The emphasis of Scripture and early Christian theology is the headship of the Father and the functional agency of the Son (1 Cor. 11:3; 15:27–28), according to which the Father alone could appropriately be described as the ἀρχή of creation if ἀρχή is understood as causal.[75]

Most importantly, in the Apocalypse itself God the Father is portrayed as the Creator of the world five times,[76] while Christ is never portrayed as the Creator or even the agent in creation. On the other hand God the Father is described in terms of sovereign rule on six occasions,[77] while Christ as Ruler occurs in at least eleven contexts.[78]

In light of these considerations from the New Testament and especially the Book of Revelation, it is apparent that the emphasis is on Christ’s reign rather than His being the primary source of creation as would be indicated if ἀρχή were taken in its impersonal nuance as “source.”[79] Furthermore Christ’s consistent role as divine agent in creating—not as the object of creation—argues against a propartial or prosequential understanding.

Challenges to the Interpretation

One challenge to the governmental interpretation of Revelation 3:14 is the text’s choice of the feminine and abstract ἀρχή to convey such a meaning. To help explain this, one must note the use of ἀρχή in Colossians, an epistle that was no doubt in the hands of the Laodiceans by the time Revelation was written and with which they were familiar.[80] Throughout Colossians ἀρχή is used in a governmental sense and in the plural, in reference to the spiritual and/or secular forces at odds with God’s kingdom. Only in Colossians 1:18 is ἀρχή used in the singular with reference to Christ, and this is in a context that refers to His kingdom (v. 13) and His supremacy over the plurality of ἀρχαί mentioned in verse 16. Thus by using ἀρχή in Revelation 3:14 Christ made a conceptual contact with the Colossian epistle and communicated His supremacy over all so-called ἀρχαί. While the Laodiceans were aware that there are many ἀρχαί in the world, only Christ is the ἀρχή par excellence and therefore calls for total allegiance.

Also the causal, propartial, and prosequential interpretations face similar problems with the use of ἀρχή in Revelation 3:14. If the verse intends to express the notion of personal cause of creation, the masculine αἴτιος would have served better (cf. Heb. 5:9). If the intended meaning were “first created being,” then πρῶτος would have best communicated such an idea. Thus it appears that any viable position on the passage must address the question of the use of ἀρχή as opposed to a more concrete and personal term. A governmental view has no disadvantage on this point.

Other appeals to parallel passages

In previous studies on the meaning of ἀρχή in Revelation 3:14 emphasis has been placed on “parallel” passages in the New Testament or even the Septuagint.[81]

The problem with appealing to parallel passages at the beginning of a study of Revelation 3:14 is one of validation. The passages are used to conclude a particular view of ἀρχή often without examining the consistency of such a view with the immediate context itself.[82] Also appealing to obscure passages gives little help in shedding light on the already obscure title in Revelation 3:14.[83] While Burney’s argument for Proverbs 8:22 as the background to Revelation 3:14[84] is given considerable weight in the third edition of A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature,[85] his failure to begin with a lexically and contextually sensitive exegesis of the passage mitigates against his conclusions.[86] It is the present writer’s conviction that one must begin with a lexical, syntactical, contextual, and historical theological investigation, as presented in this article.

Conclusion

The constellation of evidences presented in this article strongly suggests that viewing ἀρχή in Revelation 3:14 as governmental is most probable, whereas causal, propartial, or prosequential interpretations are improbable. This view fits the theme and theology of the Apocalypse itself (Christ as Ruler over the present and future ages); it harmonizes with the New Testament doctrine of the agency of Christ in creation (by and through the Son, but from the Father); it adopts a legitimate nuance of ἀρχή when referring to persons; it harmonizes with the most probable understanding of κτίσις (the created universe rather than the act of creating); it best explains the syntactical functions of the noun ἀρχή, and the two genitives (τῆς κτίσεως as a genitive of subordination and τοῦ θεοῦ as a genitive of source); and it best accounts for the subsequent reference in Revelation 3:21–22 to Christ being granted authority to rule by the Father.

The translation “the Ruler of God’s creation” may reflect the intended meaning, but it is a bit too personal for the governmental nuance of ἀρχή. In the other extreme the impersonal “rule” would also be inappropriate. Therefore the rendering “the supreme Authority over the creation of God” seems to be the most probable interpretation and most accurate translation of Revelation 3:14. Though such an interpretation is compatible with both non-Trinitarian and Trinitarian Christologies, it does deprive non-Trinitarian advocates of a proof text. Regarding the recent assertion by Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich, and Danker that the meaning “first created” for ἀρχή in Revelation 3:14 is linguistically probable,[87] in light of the evidence and arguments presented in this article the entry should be amended to “linguistically improbable.”

Notes

1. Notable among the adherents are the Jehovah’s Witnesses, as seen in “Things in Which It Is Impossible for God to Lie” (Brooklyn, NY: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1965), 122. See also “Make Sure of All Things,” rev. ed. (Brooklyn, NY: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1957), 386–87; Rolf Furuli, The Role of Theology and Bias in Bible Translation (Huntington Beach, CA: Elihu, 1999), 256; Greg Stafford, Jehovah’s Witnesses Defended, 2d ed. (Huntington Beach, CA: Elihu, 1999), 236; and Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life (Brooklyn, NY: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1995), 39.
2. Walter Bauer, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 2d ed., rev. F. Wilbur Gingrich and Frederick W. Danker (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), 112.
3. Walter Bauer, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3d ed., rev. Frederick W. Danker (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 138. Interestingly the sixth German edition on which the third English edition is partially based retains the statement “doch ist die Deutung Anfang = Erstingswerk möglich” (“still the meaning Beginning = first created is possible”) (Walter Bauer, Griechisch-deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments, 6th ed., ed. K. Aland and B. Aland [Berlin: de Gruyter, 1988], 225).
4. For a discussion of Revelation 3:14 and its relationship to ante-Nicene and Nicene Christological controversies see Michael J. Svigel, “Christ as ̔Η ᾿Αρχή τῆς Κτίσεως τοῦ Θεοῦ in Revelation 3:14” (Th.M. thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary, 2001), 4–14.
5. English translations include the New English Translation (NET) and the New Revised Standard Version.
6. William Evans, Christ’s Last Message to His Church (New York: Revell, 1926), 204.
7. Greg K. Beale, The Book of Revelation, New International Greek Testament Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 93; William J. McKnight, John to the Seven Churches, vol. 1 of The Apocalypse of Jesus Christ—A Reappearance (Boston: Hamilton Brothers, 1927), 273; and Ford C. Ottman, The Unfolding of the Ages in the Revelation of John (New York: Baker & Taylor, 1905; reprint, Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1967), 298.
8. William Barclay, Letters to the Seven Churches (London: SCM, 1957), 115–16; Stephen Alexander Hunter, Studies in the Book of Revelation (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh, 1921), 110–11; and Harald Ulland, Die Vision als Radikalisierung der Wirklichkeit in der Apokalypse Johannes, Texte und Arbeiten zum Neutestamentlichen Zeitalter (Tübingen: Francke, 1997), 35–36.
9. As in the New International Version and Young’s Literal Translation.
10. Albert Barnes, Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the Book of Revelation (New York: Harper, 1859), 122; Siegbert W. Becker, Revelation: The Distant Triumph Song (Milwaukee, WI: Northwestern, 1985), 74; Henry Cowles, The Revelation of John (New York: Appleton, 1872), 81; and William J. Reid, Lectures on the Revelation (Pittsburgh: Stevenson, Foster, 1878), 77–78.
11. At least one English translation renders the phrase “the head of God’s new order” (The Bible in Basic English [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1949]). See also W. R. Hartridge, Revelation of Jesus Christ, 2d ed. (London: Carter, 1892), 15.
12. F. Edward Butterworth, Return of the Ancients (A Divine Drama Already in Progress on the Deep Screen of Space) (Chico, CA: Cosmic, 1987), 73; Furuli, The Role of Theology and Bias in Bible Translation, 256; and Stafford, Jehovah’s WitnessesDefended, 236.
13. William Hoste, The Visions of John the Divine (Kilmarnock, UK: Ritchie, 1900), 34.
14. John Wick Bowman, The First Christian Drama: The Book of Revelation (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968), 39; Robert G. Bratcher and Howard A. Hatton, A Handbook on the Revelation to John, United Bible Societies Handbook Series (New York: United Bible Societies, 1993), 79; and George Eldon Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation of John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972), 65.
15. One English representative of this view is the New Jerusalem Bible.
16. Herbert H. Gowen, An Analytical Transcription of the Revelation of St. John the Divine (London: Skeffington & Son, 1910), 44.
17. David Chilton, The Days of Vengeance (Fort Worth: Dominion, 1987), 133; and Kendell H. Easley, Revelation, Holman New Testament Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1998), 59. For many this double meaning is logical rather than lexical, that is, Christ is the Ruler of creation because He is the Source of creation (William R. Newell, The Book of Revelation [Chicago: Grace, 1939], 75; Gerhard A. Krodel, Revelation, Augsburg Commentary on the New Testament [Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1989], 141–42; and Foy E. Wallace Jr., The Book of Revelation [Nashville: By the author, 1966], 105). Others suggest that the ambiguous ἀρχή has an intended double meaning (Isbon T. Beckwith, The Apocalypse of John [New York: Macmillan, 1919], 488–89; James Glasgow, The Apocalypse Translated and Expounded [Edinburgh: Clark, 1872], 173; Grant R. Osborne, Revelation, Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament [Grand Rapids: Baker, 2002], 204–5; and John P. M. Sweet, Revelation, Westminster Pelican Commentaries [Philadelphia: Westminster, 1979], 107).
18. This includes at least two thorough examinations of each occurrence of ἀρχή in the Septuagint, New Testament, and apostolic fathers, first determining types of usage in various contexts and then establishing more general categories within which each occurrence was either confirmed or reclassified with a greater degree of precision.
19. For example Genesis 1:1; Mark 10:6; Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews 1.1.1 (cf. Gerhard Delling, “ἄρχω, ἀρχή, ἀπαρχή, ἀρχαῖος, ἀρχήγός, ἄρχων,” in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, vol. 1 [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964], 479).
20. Origen, Commentary on John 1.17: “Again, there is a beginning in a matter of origin (᾿Εστι δέ ἀρχή καί ἡ ὡς γενέσεως)” (cf. Aristotle, Metaphysics 1.3.5).
21. For example see Genesis 49:3; Matthew 24:8; and John 2:11. This verse in John reads, Ταύτην ἐποίησεν ἀρχὴν τῶν σημείων (“This Jesus did as a beginning of signs”). Although the New American Standard Bible has “This beginning of [His] signs Jesus did,” the phrase is best translated as in the NET Bible: “Jesus did this as the first of his miraculous signs,” taking ἀρχή as the complement in an object-complement construction (Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar beyond the Basics [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996], 182–89).
22. Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, 1.33; Genesis 40:13; Luke 20:20.
23. For example the edge or extremity of an object is sometimes called an ἀρχή (Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews 3.6.2; Exod. 39:16; Acts 10:11).
24. Origen notes, “There is also an arche in a matter of learning, as when we say that the letters are the arche of grammar” (Origen, Commentary on John 1.18).
25. These are Numbers 1:2; 4:22; and 26:2 (mathematical sum); Isaiah 9:14 and Ezekiel 10:11 (physical head, translating רֹאשׁ); Revelation 3:14 (under consideration); 21:6; and 22:13 (abstract divine title, the meaning of which cannot be abstracted from the merism).
26. See Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, eds., A Greek-English Lexicon, 9th ed., rev. H. S. Jones and Roderick McKenzie (Oxford: Clarendon, 1940), 252. Some definitions include “beginning, origin,” “first principle, element,” “end, corner,” “sum, total,” “power, sovereignty,” “realm,” “office,” and “magistrate” (cf. Lloyd P. Gerson, God and Greek Philosophy, Issues in Ancient Philosophy [London: Routledge, 1990], 5–6).
27. The technical philosophical use of ἀρχή in Greek metaphysics was that of an uncaused, static, underlying principal that causes the rest of reality and on which reality depends (Aristotle, Metaphysics 1.3.3–4). See Samuel Enoch Stumpf, Socrates to Sartre: A History of Philosophy, 6th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill College, 1999), 88, 114–19.
28. These are (a) the part of a thing from which one may first move (propartial, prospatial); (b) the practical starting point of a discourse (elemental); (c) the foundational, internal part of something (propartial); (d) the foundational, external thing which causes another to come into being (causal); (e) the highest position of authority (governmental); (f) the artistic vocations whose practitioners “are wiser than men of mere experience” (preeminent); and (g) “the point from which a thing is first comprehensible” (elemental) (Aristotle Metaphysics 5.1.1–3).
29. All searches in this article were made by Gramcord for Windows, Morphological Search Engine 2.4ap (Vancouver, WA: Gramcord Institute, 1999).
30. Genesis 1:1; 13:4; 40:13b; 41:21; 43:18, 20; Deuteronomy 11:12; 33:15, 27; Joshua 24:2; Judges 7:19b; 20:18 (twice); Ruth 1:22; 2 Kings 7:10; 14:26; 17:9; 21:9–10; 4 Kings 17:25; 1 Chronicles 16:7; 17:9; 2 Chronicles 23:8; 1 Esdras 8:67; 2 Esdras 4:6; 8:18; 9:2 (debatable); 22:46; Esther 4:17; Judith 8:29; 1 Maccabees 15:17; 2 Maccabees 8:27 (protemporal is favored here because ἀρχή stands in apposition to ἡμέραν ταύτην, thus indicating the time at which something commenced); 3 Maccabees 6:26; Psalms 73:2; 76:12; 77:2; 101:26; 118:152; Proverbs 8:22–23; Ecclesiastes 3:11; Wisdom of Solomon 6:22; 7:18; 9:8; 12:11; 14:6, 13; Sirach 15:14; 16:26; 24:9; 36:10, 14; 39:25, 32; 51:20; Psalms of Solomon 8:31; 17:30; Micah 5:1; Habbakuk 1:12; Zechariah 12:7; Isaiah 1:26; 2:6; 19:11; 22:11; 23:7; 40:21; 41:4, 26; 42:9; 43:9, 13; 44:8; 45:21; 48, 16; 51:9; 63:16, 19; 25:20; Jeremiah 33:1; Baruch 3:26; Lamentations 2:19; Ezekiel 16:55 (twice); 36:11; and Daniel 8:1; 9:21.
31. Genesis 1:16 (twice); 40:13, 20 (twice), 21; 41:13; Exodus 6:25 (debatable); Deuteronomy 17:18, 20; Judges 7:16, 20; 9:34, 43, 44 (twice); 1 Kings 11:11; 13:17 (twice), 18 (twice); 3 Kings 20:9; 20:12; 1 Chronicles 12:33; 26:10; 29:12; 2 Chronicles 13:12; 2 Esdras 19:17; Esther 4:17; 8:12; 1 Maccabees 5:33; 10:52; 2 Maccabees 4:10, 4:50; 5:7; 13:3; 3 Maccabees 6:24; 4 Maccabees 4:15, 17; 8:7; Psalms 109:3; 138:17; Proverbs 16:12; 17:14; Job 37:3; 40:19; Psalms of Solomon 2:30; Hosea 2:2; Amos 6:7; Micah 3:1; 4:8; Obadiah 20; Nahum 1:6; 3:8; Isaiah 9:5–6; 10:10; 41:27; 42:10; Jeremiah 13:21; 22:6; 25:15; 28:58; 30:18; 41:1; Ezekiel 29:14–15; Daniel 2:37; 6:27; 7:12, 14, 26–27; 11:41.
32. Genesis 1:16 (twice); Exodus 6:25 (debatable); 1 Chronicles 12:33; 2 Esdras 19:17; Job 40:19; Hosea 2:2; Micah 3:1; Daniel 7:27; 11:41.
33. Psalm 110:10; Proverbs 1:7; 9:10; 15:33 (debatable); 16:7; Wisdom of Solomon 6:17 (debatable); 7:5; 12:16; 14:12, 27; Sirach 1:14; 10:12; 10:13; 25:24.
34. The Septuagint of Psalm 110:10 reads, ἀρχή σοφίας φόβος κυρίου, “The fear of the Lord is the cause that results in wisdom” (cf. Wisd. of Sol. 14:27).
35. Genesis 2:10 (debatable); 10:10; Exodus 34:22; Ecclesiastes 7:8; Hosea 1:2; Isaiah 19:15; Jeremiah 2:3; Daniel 9:23; Sirach 37:16 (this may be propartial—reason as the first part of the action—or also elemental—reason as the fundamental principle controlling an action, but prosequential is unlikely since reason is the guiding principle of a single action, not the first in a series of distinct actions).
36. Genesis 49:3; Exodus 12:2; Deuteronomy 21:17; Ecclesiastes 10:13.
37. Exodus 36:23; Judges 7:11, 17, 19; 9:37; 3 Kings 7:21; Song of Solomon 4:8; Nahum 3:10; Lamentations 4:1; Ezekiel 16:25, 31; 21:24 (twice), 26; 31:3, 10, 14; 42:10, 12; 43:14; 48:1.
38. Numbers 24:20; Psalm 136:6; Ecclesiastes 5:10 (variant); Amos 6:1; Sirach 11:3; 16:27; 29:21; 39:26.
39. Numbers 1:2; 4:22; and 26:2 all use ἀρχή to refer to the taking of a census. Isaiah 9:14 and Ezekiel 10:11 seem to refer to a physical head, where κεφαλή would have been more appropriate. With regard to such uses of ἀρχή, Delling notes, “Many peculiarities and obscurities are caused by the often fairly automatic use of ἀρχή for [variety]” (“ἄρχω, ἀρχή, ἀπαρχή, ἀρχαῖος, ἀρχήγός, ἄρχων,” in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, 1:481).
40. Louw and Nida’s definitions of ἀρχή are beginning (aspect or time), first cause, sphere of authority, ruler, supernatural power, elementary aspect, and corner (Johannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida, eds., Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament [New York: United Bible Societies, 1988], 2:35).
41. Matthew 19:4, 8; 24:21; Mark 10:6; 13:19; Luke 1:2; John 1:1–2; 6:64; 8:25 (debatable); 8:44; 15:27; 16:4; Acts 11:15; 26:4; Hebrews 1:10; 2:3; 2 Peter 3:4; 1 John 1:1; 2:7, 13–14, 24 (twice); 3:8, 11; 2 John 5, 6.
42. Luke 20:20; 1 Corinthians 15:24; Ephesians 1:21; Colossians 2:10; Jude 6.
43. Luke 12:11; Romans 8:38; Ephesians 3:10; 6:12; Colossians 1:16; 2:15; Titus 3:1.
44. Matthew 24:8; Mark 1:1; 13:8; Philippians 4:15 (debatable); Hebrews 3:14 (debatable).
45. John 2:11; Hebrews 7:3.
46. This figure is from Edgar J. Goodspeed, ed., Index Patristicus (Leipzig: Henrichs, 1907; reprint, Naperville, IL: Allenson, 1960), 28.
47. 1 Clement 19:2; 31:1; 47:2; Barnabas 15:3, 8 (debatable); 16:8; Shepherd of Hermas, Similitude 9.11.9; Diognetus 2:1; 8:11; 11:4; 12:3a; 12:3b (debatable); Ignatius, Letter to the Ephesians 19:3; idem, Letter to the Magnesians 13:1; Polycarp, Letter to the Philippians 7:2; and Martyrdom of Polycarp 17:1.
48. Ignatius, Letter to the Ephesians 14:1 (twice); idem, Letter to the Smyrnaeans 8:1; and Polycarp, Letter to the Philippians 4:1.
49. Barnabas 1:6 (twice); 15:8b (debatable); Ignatius, Letter to the Ephesians 3:1; and idem, Letter to the Romans 1:2 (debatable).
50. Martyrdom of Polycarp 10:2. In this context the ἀρχαί referred to by Polycarp seem to be personal.
51. One can rule out two uses of ἀρχή as so improbable that they are virtually impossible. These include the nonsensical protemporal nuance (“the earliest point in time of God’s creation”) and the prospatial nuance (“the corner/edge of God’s creation”).
52. Louw and Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 2:148.
53. According to Gramcord κτίσις occurs in the Septuagint in Judith 9:12; 16:14; Tobit 8:5, 15; 3 Maccabees 2:2, 7; 6:2; Wisdom of Solomon 2:6; 5:17; 16:24; 19:6; Sirach 16:17; 43:25; 49:16, and Psalms of Solomon 8:7.
54. Judith 9:12; 16:14; Tobit 8:5; 3 Maccabees 2:2, 7; 6:2; Wisdom of Solomon 2:6; 5:17; 19:6; and Sirach 16:17; 49:16. In such nuances “the process of creation is no longer focal, and what is in focus is the total physical universe” (Louw and Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 1:1).
55. Mark 10:6; 13:19; 16:15; Romans 1:20, 25; 8:19–22, 39; 2 Corinthians 5:17; Galatians 6:15; Colossians 1:15, 23; Hebrews 4:13; 9:11; 1 Peter 2:13; 2 Peter 3:4.
56. In Romans 1:20 the knowledge of God to which Paul referred is acquired through the created things and has been so known ἀπὸ κτίσεως κόσμου. Unless ἀπό is being used as means, the nuance must be active, κόσμου functioning as an objective genitive.
57. Mark 10:6; 13:19; Romans 8:19–22; Colossians 1:15, 23; Hebrews 9:11; 2 Peter 3:4.
58. Romans 1:25; 8:39; 2 Corinthians 5:17; Galatians 6:15; Hebrews 4:13; 1 Peter 2:13. Although κτίσις in Mark 16:15 may be loosely equivalent to “all the world” in the first part of the imperative, the “world” may be a geographical indicator while “creation” refers to all creatures in it.
59. David E. Aune, Revelation 1-5, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word, 1997), 119–24; Beale, The Book of Revelation, 224–25; and G. B. Caird, The Revelation of Saint John, Black’s New Testament Commentaries (London: Black, 1966; reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993), 27.
60. Caird, The Revelation of Saint John, 27; Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation of John, 36; and William M. Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia and Their Place in the Plan of the Apocalypse (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1904), 198. For a more complete treatment of the verbal and thematic relationships between the title of Christ and the body of each of the seven letters see Svigel, “Christ as ̔Η ᾿Αρχή τῆς Κτίσεως τοῦ Θεοῦ in Revelation 3:14, ” 52–58.
61. Thus Beale writes, “The titles in v 14 must be related to the rest of the letter in some way since the titles introducing all the previous letters are related to and developed in the letters” (The Book of Revelation, 301).
62. The Hebrew reads יִתְבָּךְ אוֹּי אָן (“he shall be blessed by the God of Amen”). The Septuagint translates the verse εὐλογήσουσιν γάρ τόν θεόν τόν ἀληθινόν. This already suggests that Revelation 3:14 shows a dependence on Isaiah 65:16 as well as a knowledge of both the Hebrew and the Greek versions of the verse (Aune, Revelation 1–5, 255; Beale, The Book of Revelation, 298–99; and Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation of John, 64).
63. It is probably correct to take “the Amen” as epexegetical to “the faithful and true witness.” This is suggested by the Septuagint translation of Isaiah 65:16, where God is called “the true God” (Beale, The Book of Revelation, 299; and Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation of John, 64–65).
64. Beale, The Book of Revelation, 298–301.
65. Ibid., 301.
66. The use of the Old Testament in the Apocalypse is too dynamic for the meaning here to be limited to that of the Old Testament context (see Greg K. Beale, John’s Use of the Old Testament in Revelation, Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series [Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1998]).
67. Beale, The Book of Revelation, 303. See also Aune, Revelation 1-5, 257; Caird, The Revelation of Saint John, 57; Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation of John, 65; and Stan Porter, “Why the Laodiceans Received Lukewarm Water (Revelation 3:15–18),” Tyndale Bulletin 3 (1987): 143-49.
68. Caird, The Revelation of Saint John, 57.
69. Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation of John, 66.
70. Aune, Revelation 1–5, 250–54.
71. John 1:3, 10; 1 Corinthians 8:6; Colossians 1:15–17; Hebrews 1:2, 10.
72. The Son is related to creation most often with the preposition διά (John 1:3, 10; 1 Cor. 8:6; Heb. 1:2), although ἐν is also used (Col. 1:16). Wallace writes, “An intermediate agent, usually expressed by διά + the genitive, is an agent who acts on behalf of another or in the place of another. This agent is not, strictly speaking, used by another as an instrument would be” (Wallace, Greek Grammar beyond the Basics, 373). A. T. Robertson explains, “When διά occurs with the personal agent, he is regarded as the intermediate agent,” and he points to 1 Corinthians 8:6 as an example of God the Father as source and God the Son as the mediate agent of all things (A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research, 4th ed. [New York: Hodder & Stoughton, 1923; reprint, Nashville: Broadman, 1934], 582–83).
73. Romans 1:25; Ephesians 3:9; 1 Corinthians 8:6; 11:12; Hebrews 3:3–4.
74. Only one example, Hebrews 1:10 (which is actually a quotation of Psalm 102:25–27 originally applied to Yahweh), refers to the Son in the role of the direct Creator of the universe.
75. These statements are descriptive of the historical theological situation at the time and in no way suggest an ontological subordination of the Son to the Father. Instead they describe the economic or functional submission typical of New Testament and early Christian dogma—how the divine persons acted distinctly in creation. In this regard the Father is the primary cause, the Son the mediating cause, and the Spirit the perfecting cause (Basil, Liber de Spiritu Sancto 16.38; and John of Damascus, De Fide Orthodoxa 1.8). For contemporary discussions from various major Christian traditions see James D. G. Dunn, Christology, vol. 1 of The Christ and the Spirit: Collected Essays of James D. G. Dunn (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 381, 417–20; Catherine Mowry LaCugna, God for Us: The Trinity and Christian Life (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1991), 21–52; Vladimir Lossky, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, trans. Fellowship of St. Alban and St. Sergius (Cambridge: James Clarke, 1957; reprint, New York: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1976), 58–62, 100–101; and Peter Toon, Our Triune God: A Biblical Portrayal of the Trinity (Wheaton, IL: Victor, 1996), 240.
76. Revelation 4:11; 10:6; 14:7; 21:2, 5.
77. Revelation 1:8; 11:15, 17; 12:10; 15:3; 19:6.
78. Revelation 1:5, 6 (debatable), 9; 2:26–27; 3:21; 5:12–13; 11:15; 12:5, 10; 17:14; 19:11–16; 20:4–6.
79. Since ἀρχή is never used in a causal sense in the New Testament and rarely in the Septuagint, the background for the understanding of ἀρχή as source or origin would likely be its causal usage in Greek metaphysical thought. However, if Revelation 3:14 is drawing on that background, the term would also carry the philosophical meaning, which is the primary cause, behind which there is no other. However, to view Revelation 3:14 as stating that Christ is the primary cause of either the original creation or the new creation is inconsistent with the New Testament emphasis on Christ as the agent of creation and the Father alone in the proper role of ἀρχή in this specific philosophical sense.
80. See Colossians 2:1; 4:13, 15–16 (Aune, Revelation 1–5, 249).
81. Some point to John 1:1 and the reference to Christ’s agency in the creation of the universe ἐν ἀρχῇ as support for a causal interpretation (e.g., NET Bible on Rev. 3:14). Others argue that the hymn of Colossians 1:15–18 and its use of ἀρχή for Christ stands as the background for a governmental, causal, or even propartial or prosequential interpretation, the variance resulting from the obscurity of the Colossian use itself (e.g., Aune, Revelation 1-5, 256; and R. H. Charles, The Revelation of St. John, International Critical Commentary [Edinburgh: Clark, 1920], 1:94). Others point to the description of personified wisdom as ἀρχή in the Septuagint of Proverbs 8:22, where wisdom shares in the creative activity of God (e.g., C. F. Burney, “Christ as the ἀρχή of Creation,” Journal of Theological Studies 26 [1925-1926]: 160-77). Cf. Heinrich Kraft, Die Offenbarung des Johannes, Handbuch zum Neuen Testament (Tübingen: Mohr, 1974), 85.
82. Beale rightly balances the matter when he writes, “Regardless of the relationship of Rev. 1:5 and 3:14 to Col. 1:15–18, both texts are to be interpreted primarily by their immediate contexts in Revelation” (The Book of Revelation, 298).
83. Appeals to Colossians 1:18 and Proverbs 8:22 are examples of this. The proper interpretations of these are disputed, as are the relevant parts they play in the meaning of Revelation 3:14.
84. Burney, “Christ as the ἀρχή of Creation,” 160–77.
85. Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3d ed., 138.
86. See L. H. Silberman, “Farewell to ὁ ἀμήν: A Case for a Semitic Original of the Apocalypse,” Novum Testamentum 14 (1972): 277-79.
87. Bauer, Arndt, and Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3d ed., 138.