The Literary and Theological Significance of the Johannine Prologue

By Stephen S. Kim

[Stephen S. Kim is Professor of Bible, Multnomah Biblical Seminary, Portland, Oregon.]

The Prologue of the Fourth Gospel (John 1:1-18) is one of the most profound passages in all of Scripture. It is crafted with unparalleled literary beauty while also possessing unique theological depth. Thus Polhill is not exaggerating in calling the Prologue a “theological masterpiece.”[1] Its masterful presentation of Jesus as the eternal λόγος of God provides a unique and vital angle from which to view the Son of God. The distinctiveness of the Johannine Prologue can be appreciated also in comparison with the prologues of the other Gospels. For instance Matthew and Luke begin their presentation of Jesus from His birth, and Mark begins his presentation of Jesus from the commencement of His earthly ministry. The Fourth Evangelist, on the other hand, presents Jesus as the divine Son of God who exists from eternity past with the Father. Although thought-provoking studies have shown certain similarities between the Johannine Prologue and the prologues in the Synoptics,[2] the uniqueness of the Johannine Prologue stands out in many respects, just as the Fourth Gospel as a whole is distinct in many ways from the Synoptic Gospels.

The Placement of the Prologue

The uniqueness of the Prologue, along with its stark contrast in literary form to the rest of the Gospel, has led many Johannine scholars to question its authenticity and to conclude that it is a later addition by a redactor.[3] However, there are solid reasons for accepting the Prologue as part of the original text. Among the various arguments for the authenticity of the Johannine Prologue, perhaps the most convincing is the close thematic connection between the Prologue and the rest of the Gospel. As Carson correctly summarizes, “The tightness of the connection between the Prologue and the Gospel render unlikely the view that the Prologue was composed by someone other than the Evangelist.”[4] Morris echoes this sentiment, based also on the close relationship between the Prologue and the rest of the Gospel. “It is more likely that it is the original, for it accords so well with what follows. These verses bring before us some of the great thoughts that will be developed as the narrative unfolds; the excellency of Christ, who is the Word of God, the eternal strife between light and darkness, and the witness borne by the Baptist, that greatest of the sons of Israel.”[5] Thus as Barrett perceptively points out, “The Prologue is not a jig-saw puzzle but one piece of solid theological writing.”[6]

As students of the Fourth Gospel uniformly point out, one of the keys to understanding this Gospel is recognizing the vital relationship of the Prologue to the rest of the Gospel narrative. Ever since von Harnack’s significant article in 1892,[7] Johannine scholars have been challenged to consider seriously the profound relationship between the Prologue and the remainder of the Gospel.[8] Although many proposals have been made regarding this significant relationship, the Prologue’s invaluable role can be summarized in two aspects: literary and theological purposes. Literarily, the Prologue plays a strategic role in the Gospel by its placement.[9] As Moloney points out, the Prologue creates tension for the reader.[10] Bultmann similarly describes the Prologue’s strategic position this way: “He [the reader] cannot yet fully understand them [motifs in the prologue], but they are half comprehensible, half mysterious, they arouse the tension, and awaken the question which is essential if he is to understand what is going to be said.”[11] Beasley-Murray’s description of the Prologue’s literary purpose is concise and accurate. “He [the Evangelist] prepares for the story by describing the Son of God in terms that rivet the attention of his readers, and so encourages them to read the story for themselves.”[12] Thus the Prologue serves an important literary purpose by setting the stage for the reader to anticipate the rest of the Gospel narrative.

The other important function the Prologue has in the Fourth Gospel is theological, in that it introduces the main themes of the Gospel having to do with Jesus’ identity that will be developed in the narrative. Central themes of the Gospel such as Jesus’ eternality and His deity are stated in clear terms and demonstrated later in the Gospel. Key concepts such as life and light are also presented as having their origin in the divine λόγος. These too are demonstrated later throughout the Gospel, especially in Jesus’ self-declaration as the Resurrection and the Life and as the Light of the world. Significant reactions are predicted in the Prologue such as the rejection of the Messiah by the Jewish leaders, which is later demonstrated throughout the Gospel narrative and climaxes at the Cross. Carson’s table shows the many close connections between the Prologue and the rest of the Fourth Gospel.[13]

Prologue	Gospel
1:1-2	The preexistence of the λόγος or Son (17:5)
1:4	In Him was life (5:26)
1:4	Life is light (8:12)
1:5	Light rejected by darkness (3:19)
1:5	Yet the light is not quenched by the darkness (12:35)
1:9	Light coming into the world (3:19; 12:46)
1:11	Christ not received by His own (4:44)
1:13	Being born of God and not of flesh (3:6; 8:41-42)
1:14	Seeing His glory (12:41)
1:14, 18	The “one and only” Son (3:16)
1:17	Truth in Jesus Christ (14:6)
1:18	No one has seen God, except the one who comes from God’s side (6:46)

Carson’s summary of the relationship between the Prologue and the remainder of the book is insightful. “The Prologue summarizes how the ‘Word’ which was with God in the very beginning came into the sphere of time, history, tangibility—in other words, how the Son of God was sent into the world to become the Jesus of history, so that the glory and grace of God might be uniquely and perfectly disclosed. The rest of the book is nothing other than an expansion of this theme.”[14] Thus as Moloney aptly puts it, “The prologue is the ‘telling’ while the narrative is the ‘showing.’ ”[15]

The Subject of the Prologue

The subject of the Johannine Prologue is obviously ὁ λόγος (“the Word”) of God. Although there is a consensus of opinion that the λόγος is the subject of the Prologue, there is no consensus on the antecedent or background of the λόγος. Proposals for its conceptual background can be broadly classified into three sources: (a) Greek philosophy (Stoicism and Philo);[16] (b) the “Word” as the personification of Wisdom in Jewish wisdom literature (σωφία);[17] and (c) the Word of God in the Old Testament.[18]

Although it is clear that the Evangelist’s primary antecedent for the λόγος is the Old Testament and the Hebrew term דָּבָר, he may have used this particular word to communicate effectively to a wider audience. As Köstenberger explains, however, a distinction must be kept in mind between John’s conceptual background and his desire to contextualize his message to a particular audience.[19] “This desire to contextualize his message may have led John to use a term that had currency among his readers in order to persuade them of the relevance of his gospel. Yet even if John used the term ‘Word’ because it served his purpose of communicating to a Hellenistic audience, this does not mean that he used the expression in the way in which it was commonly used in the world of his day; the background for this term may rather lie in John’s own thought world.”[20] Harris’s clarification is also insightful.

Why did John choose to call Jesus the Logos in the prologue to his Gospel, and what did he mean by it? As to why the term was used, the answer probably lies with John’s audience. John gave no explanation of the Logos, apparently assuming his readers would understand the idea. Greek readers would probably think he was referring to the rational principle that guided the universe and would be shocked to find that this Logos had become not only personalized but incarnate (1:1-14). Jewish readers would be more prepared for some sort of personalized preexistent Wisdom, but they too would be amazed at the idea of incarnation. John presented Jesus as the true Logos as preparation for his own presentation of Jesus as the Son of God.[21]

Although the Evangelist used a term that would have been understood by a wide audience in their respective cultures, his view of the λόγος is that He is the preexistent Christ, the eternal Son of God, now incarnate as Jesus of Nazareth. Perhaps Moloney’s suggestion that the Johannine λόγος is essentially about communication best describes the purpose of the choice of the word λόγος. “But the choice of the Greek expression ὁ λόγος, whatever its background, allows the author to hint to the reader that from the intimacy between the Word and God which has been described, ‘the Word’ will be spoken. A word is essentially about communication. The modality of that communication has not been indicated, but if there is the Word, then it exists to say something.”[22]

The Structure of the Prologue

The Prologue in the Fourth Gospel is a difficult passage to outline and, as a result, enjoys very little consensus about its structure. One of the reasons it is difficult to outline is the apparent scattering of subjects throughout the passage. For instance John the Baptist appears toward the beginning of the passage (vv. 6-8), and again toward the end (v. 15). However, solutions have been offered to explain this seeming lack of coherence within the passage. One of the significant proposals that demands a serious look is that the Prologue is structured in a chiasm.[23] Culpepper suggests a chiastic structure in which verse 12b is the center of attention, the “pivot” on which the chiasm turns.[24] This may explain why, for example, John the Baptist appears in two separate places in the passage (vv. 6-8, 15). In other words the elements in the Prologue are not placed randomly but intentionally for a literary purpose.

Köstenberger suggests a chiasm with a different climactic point.[25]

A. The Word’s activity in creation (1:1-5)

B. John’s witness concerning the light (1:6-9)

C. The incarnation of the Word (1:10-14)

B.´ John’s witness concerning the Word’s preeminence (1:15)

A.´ The final revelation brought by Jesus Christ (1:16-18)

Thus the Word’s incarnation is seen as the pivot point of the Prologue.

Although it is probable that some sort of chiastic structure is designed by the Evangelist, the following outline is proposed for the sake of dividing the passage according to a thematic analysis.

I. The Origin and Nature of the Logos (vv. 1-5)

II. The Witness to the Logos (vv. 6-8)

III. The Manifestation of the Logos (vv. 9-13)

IV. The Revelation of the Logos (vv. 14-18)

The Significance of the Prologue

The Johannine Prologue, like the rest of the Fourth Gospel, is immersed in Old Testament theology. This section analyzes the major parts of the Prologue and how they draw their theology from the rich reservoir of the Hebrew Scriptures. The Prologue provides significant revelations about the One to whom the sign-miracles bear witness and thus sets the stage for the Gospel narrative.

I. The Origin and Nature of the Logos (vv. 1-5)

The opening words of the Johannine Prologue make reference to the opening words of Genesis. Emphasizing the eternality and deity of Jesus Christ, the Evangelist began with the familiar words, “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was with God in the beginning” (v. 1). The conceptual parallels between John 1 and Genesis 1 are startling.[26]

However, the Evangelist also added invaluable revelations about the eternal Logos. For instance, the beginning words of the Fourth Gospel shed further light on the creation account of Genesis 1, namely, that God the Father created the world through the Son (cf. Col. 1:16-17; Heb. 1:2). Thus God the Son, the eternal Word who was coexistent with the Father in the beginning, is also the Creator. This connection is summarized well by Waltke. “The creation account of the Old Testament finds its full explication in Jesus of Nazareth, the God-man. As God, He is the Creator, the One full of light, life, wisdom, and goodness. As man, He is the One who is bringing the earth under His dominion. . . . John wrote about Him as the Creator.”[27] John’s reference to the beginning goes back to eternity past,[28] thus superseding the reference to the beginning of time in Genesis 1. John’s emphasis on the eternal Logos is that, as the Creator, He is distinct from all creation.

The opening verses of the Prologue also reveal that life exists in the eternal Logos.[29] Although the Evangelist could have been referring to physical life, more likely he was also referring to eternal life. Brown’s description of the Johannine usage of “life” is insightful. “All created life is an expression of that life-giving power eternally existent in the Logos. Life, in John’s mind, means the existence that is characteristic of God Himself. It is God’s life.”[30] The fact that John was referring to more than just physical life can be seen in the words that follow, namely, “that life was the light of men.” In joining these significant concepts of life and light, John may have had Psalm 36:9 in mind. “For with you is the fountain of life; in your light we see light.”[31]

Light characterizes the nature of God. “God is light; in him there is no darkness at all” (1 John 1:5). The psalmist praised the Lord as both light and salvation (Ps. 27:1). Isaiah wrote that he longed for the day when the Messiah would bring light to people living in darkness (Isa. 9:2). “Light, according to the Prologue, does not belong naturally to humanity. It is a gift or a power from outside the human situation that confronts the world.”[32] These important characteristics of life and light that describe the divine Logos are also characteristics that Jesus attributed to Himself and are illustrated through His miracles.

Although the light of the Logos shines in this darkened world, the world opposes the light (v. 5). “Darkness in the thought of John is not merely lack of knowledge or illumination, it is a symbol of rebellion, conflict, and hostility. It signals an existence both external and internal that opposes God.”[33] In other words this darkness is not merely a passive state referring to the absence of God’s light. Instead it is an active opposition and rebellion against the things of God. This theme characterizes Jesus’ ministry in this Gospel.

The opening verses of the Prologue describe the origin and nature of the Logos as the eternal and divine Word who exists with God the Father from eternity past. He was present when the universe began (Gen. 1:1), but also He Himself was the One who created all things. Furthermore the Logos is the source of all life, particularly the kind of life that He possesses. And it is He who penetrates with His light the world of humanity that is characterized by spiritual darkness. It is no accident that the qualities that characterize the divine Logos in the Prologue are also true of Jesus in the sign-miracles recorded in the Gospel narrative. For instance Jesus is seen as the Creator through the miracle of turning water into wine at the wedding in Cana (2:1-11). And He is the source of life as seen in the miracle of the feeding of the five thousand (6:1-15) and in His self-declaration as the Bread of life (6:48). That Jesus is the source of life is also demonstrated through His raising Lazarus from the dead (11:1-44) and His self-declaration as the Resurrection and the Life (11:25). Jesus is also demonstrated as the source of light through the miracle of healing the man born blind (9:1-41) and His self-declaration as the Light of the world (8:12).

II. The Witness to the Logos (vv. 6-8)

These three verses in the middle of the Prologue seem somewhat out of place literarily. As Borchert observes, “In the midst of the poetic section of the Prologue, the next three verses (vv. 6-8) appear as a prose section.”[34] Moloney’s description of these verses is even more dramatic. “The speculations of vv. 1-5 come to a halt as the reader is drawn quite rudely into history with the first words of v. 6: ἐγένετο ἄνθρωπος, ‘a man appeared’. . . . The reader encounters a historical person. He is given a name: ‘his name was John.’ ”[35] In these verses John the Baptist is set in contrast to the Logos. Although John the Baptist is also sent from God, he is a mere witness to the Logos, who is the light. Thus literarily these verses are fitting, since they contrast the coming of John the Baptist with another who has also come from God, the eternal Logos. However, whereas the Logos is the substance of God’s revelation to the world, John the Baptist is merely a witness of Him.

The introduction of John the Baptist as a witness of the Logos also establishes a theme of theological significance that will be repeated in the Gospel narrative. The theme of witness (μαρτυρία) is significant because witnesses establish the legitimacy of another’s testimony, a principle emphasized in the Old Testament.[36] Where there is a need for a verifiable testimony, two or three witnesses must corroborate the matter (cf. Deut. 19:15-21). This principle was also accepted by Jesus (Matt. 18:16; John 8:17) and the apostles (cf. 2 Cor. 13:1). Thus for the Evangelist, John the Baptist’s witness was significant to the testimony of the Logos, a fact reiterated by Jesus Himself concerning John the Baptist’s testimony (John 5:33-35; cf. 10:41). In summary, then, these verses in the Prologue that at first seem out of place, play an important role both literarily and theologically concerning the significant witness of John the Baptist.

III. The Manifestation of the Logos (vv. 9-13)

Although these verses continue the theme of the Logos as the true light who is coming into the world, their main emphasis is the world’s rejection of Him. The concept of “the coming one” (ὁ ἐρχόμενος) is deeply rooted in Jewish messianic expectations, and it is a phrase that is repeated later in the Gospel narrative.[37] For instance even the Samaritan woman understood the concept of the coming Messiah (4:25; cf. 1:30; 7:27-31; 12:15). Jewish expectations of the coming Messiah are surely derived from the Hebrew Scriptures, such as Psalm 118:26, “Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord.” Furthermore the Evangelist records the crowd quoting the familiar messianic verse at Jesus’ triumphal entry (12:15): “Rejoice greatly, O Daughter of Zion! Shout, Daughter of Jerusalem! See, your king comes to you, righteous and having salvation, gentle and riding on a donkey, on a colt, the foal of a donkey” (Zech. 9:9). Thus the Evangelist was equating the coming of the Logos into the world with the advent of the Messiah, and thus he was preparing the reader for the revelations concerning Jesus.

The Evangelist also emphasized that the coming of the Messiah (Logos) will be met with intense opposition. These verses reiterate the previous statement that “the light shines in the darkness, but the darkness has not understood [overcome] it” (1:5).[38] The Logos, the true light, has come into the world of men, but the world rejects the light because it is characterized by darkness. Thus in the Evangelist’s words the Creator has drawn near to His creation, but they did not receive Him. This rejection motif is one of the central themes of the Fourth Gospel. However, what is even more mind-boggling to the Evangelist is that even the Jews rejected the promised Messiah: “He came to that which was his own [ἴδια] but his own did not receive him” (1:11).

The theme of the Messiah being rejected by His own people also finds its antecedent in the commissioning of the prophet Isaiah, where God warned the prophet that rejection of God’s messengers would be characteristic of Israel (Isa. 6:1-13; cf. John 12). The psalmist also foreshadowed such rejection of the Messiah: “The stone the builders rejected has become the capstone” (Ps. 118:22). Furthermore this same theme of Israel rejecting the prophets of God is continued by Jesus Himself in the Parable of the Tenants, in which Israel will not only reject the prophets of God but will kill the son (Mark 12:1-12; cf. Matt. 21:33-44; Luke 20:9-19).

IV. The Revelation of the Logos (1:14-18)

The Prologue reaches its climax with the incarnation of the Logos. The divine Logos, who exists eternally with God the Father, has now taken on humanity in Jesus Christ. The theme of the incarnation of the divine Logos is the main emphasis of these closing verses of the Prologue. The eternal Logos has revealed Himself fully through His incarnation in Jesus. It is clear that the Evangelist’s thought in these verses is immersed in the background of the Old Testament, particularly Exodus 33-34.[39] Köstenberger’s helpful chart highlights connections between the two.[40]

Exodus 33-34	John 1:14-18
Israel finds grace in Yahweh’s sight (33:14)	Disciples receive “grace” (1:16)
No one can see Yahweh’s face and live (33:20)	No one has seen God at any time (1:18)
Yahweh’s glory passes by Moses (33:23; 34:6-7)	The disciples beheld the Word’s glory (1:14)
Yahweh abounds in lovingkindness and truth (34:6)	Jesus is full of grace and truth (1:14, 17)
Yahweh dwelt in a tent (33:7)	The Word “tented” among the disciples (1:14)
Moses was given the Law (34:27-28)	The Law was given through Moses (1:17)
Moses, the mediator between Yahweh and Israel (34:32-35)	Jesus, the Mediator between God and man (1:17-18)

The expression of the incarnation of the divine Logos in these verses (John 1:14-18) is communicated powerfully through the familiar Old Testament imagery of God dwelling in the midst of His people by means of the tabernacle. Evans asserts that the incarnation of the Logos must be understood in light of the Sinai Covenant.[41] He explains the connection this way:

Prior to the second giving of the covenant, God had been giving Moses instructions for the building of the tabernacle (Exod 26-31). After the calf incident (chap. 32) and the renewal of the covenant (chaps. 33-34), the tabernacle is built (chaps. 35-40). When it is completed and consecrated, ‘the cloud covered the tent of meeting, and the glory (כבוד/δόξα) of the Lord filled the tabernacle (משכן/σκηνῃ)’ (Exod 40:34). In essence, then, the second half of the Johannine Prologue presupposes the second half of the book of Exodus (chaps. 20-40), which tells of Israel’s meeting God at Sinai. The balance of the Fourth Gospel bears this out, as we find several comparisons between Jesus, Moses and various aspects of the wilderness story.[42]

This association of the tabernacle imagery in the Old Testament with the incarnation of the Logos in the Johannine Prologue seems valid, since the tabernacle (tent of meeting) is the place where God spoke to Moses (Exod. 33:9) and it is where God revealed His glory to His people (40:34).[43] Thus as Koester says, “The tabernacle imagery is uniquely able to portray the person of Jesus as the locus of God’s Word and glory among humankind.”[44]

These closing verses (John 1:14-18) and the Johannine Prologue as a whole (vv. 1-18) reveal the main purpose of the incarnation of the divine Logos according to the Evangelist, that is, to reveal God through the person and works of Jesus Christ. As the unique Son of God, only Jesus is able to reveal Him (cf. 14:9).[45] Thus as Allen correctly concludes, “In John 1, the apostle deliberately built on Hebrew words and phrases because Jesus Christ is clearly linked to the revelations of Yahweh in the Hebrew Bible.”[46]

Therefore Jesus could confidently say to His critics, “I and the Father are one” (John 10:30, 38).

Summary

The Prologue plays a significant role in the Fourth Gospel, both literarily and theologically. Literarily the Prologue prepares the reader by setting the stage, so that the Gospel narrative can be approached with knowledgeable anticipation. Theologically the Prologue introduces the main themes regarding the deity of Jesus that are developed later in the narrative. Carson’s summary aptly highlights both the literary and theological emphases of the Johannine Prologue, when he likens it to “a foyer to the rest of the Fourth Gospel, simultaneously drawing the reader in and introducing the major themes.”[47]

Notes

1. John B. Polhill, “John 1-4: The Revelation of True Life,” Review and Expositor 85 (summer 1988): 445.
2. For example see R. H. Lightfoot, The Gospel Message of St. Mark, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952), 18-19. Lightfoot draws parallels between the opening words of Mark’s Gospel and the Johannine Prologue, noting that they both emphasize the important role of John the Baptist to the ministry of Jesus at the commencement of His ministry. See also Morna D. Hooker, “The Johannine Prologue and the Messianic Secret,” New Testament Studies 21 (1974): 40-58. Hooker points out parallels between the Fourth Gospel and the Gospel of Mark. She draws attention to the opening words of Mark’s Gospel in identifying Jesus as the Christ, the Son of God (1:1). These two titles of Jesus are the cornerstone of Mark’s Gospel, for they are both repeated in the pivotal points of the book (Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ at Caesarea Philippi in 8:29 and the centurion’s confession of Jesus as the Son of God at the cross in 15:39). Interestingly these are the same two titles that appear in the Fourth Gospel’s “purpose statement” (20:30-31).
3. For a survey of proposals concerning the formation of the Johannine Prologue see Raymond Brown, The Gospel according to John(I–XII), Anchor Bible (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966), 21-23. See also Rudolf Schnackenburg, The Gospel according to John: Introduction and Commentary on Chapters 1-4, trans. Kevin Smyth (New York: Seabury, 1980), 221-81. In addition to providing valuable surveys of the views of others, these two authors provide their own reconstructions of the Prologue source. Brown, for example, sees four strophes in the passage. 1. The Word with God (vv. 1-2) 2. The Word and creation (vv. 3-5) 3. The Word in the world (vv. 10-12) 4. The Word and the community (vv. 14, 16). The remaining pieces, Brown suggests, are supplements made at later stages: 1. How men become God’s childen (vv. 12c–13) 2. “Love in place of love” (vv. 17-18) 3. Materials about John the Baptist (vv. 6-9, 15). Schnackenburg, on the other hand, says the original Prologue is in verses 1, 3, 4, 9-11, 14, 16, and that the other verses (vv. 2, 5-8, 12-13, 15, 17-18) are later additions. The view of this author, however, is that the entire Prologue and Epilogue are part of the original.
4. D. A. Carson, The Gospel according to John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991), 111-12.
5. Leon Morris, The Gospel according to John, New International Commentary on the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989), 71.
6. C. K. Barrett, New Testament Essays (London: SPCK, 1972), 48.
7. Adolf von Harnack, “Über das Verhältnis des Prologs des vierten Evangeliums zum ganzen Werke” (“The Relationship of the Prologue in the Fourth Gospel to the Work as a Whole”), Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche 2 (1892): 189-231.
8. For a survey of current discussions on this subject see Elizabeth Harris, Prologue and Gospel: The Theology of the Fourth Evangelist, Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1994), 9-25.
9. Francis J. Moloney, Belief in the Word: Reading the Fourth Gospel, John 1-4 (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993), 23-24.
10. Ibid.
11. Rudolf Bultmann, The Gospel of John: A Commentary, trans. George R. Beasley-Murray, R. W. N. Hoare, and J. K. Riches (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1971), 13.
12. George R. Beasley-Murray, John, Word Biblical Commentary (Waco, TX: Word, 1987), 5.
13. Carson, The Gospel according to John, 111.
14. Ibid.
15. Moloney, Belief in the Word, 24.
16. For information on the Stoics and their teachings during the Hellenistic period see Geoffrey W. Bromiley, “Stoics,” in International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, ed. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 4:621-22. In Stoic thought Logos was Reason, the impersonal rational principle governing the universe. This principle was thought to pervade the entire universe and, according to Stoicism, human beings must live in keeping with this Reason. However, in spite of the terminology similar to that of the Johannine Logos, Stoicism differs from the Christian doctrine in essential points. As Bromiley explains, “It [Stoicism] has no concept of a personal God, no radical view of sin, no place for historical divine acts culminating in the incarnation, no idea of ethical renewal through the ministry of the Word and Spirit, and no hope of the resurrection and eternal fellowship with God in His kingdom” (ibid., 621).
17. The personification of wisdom in Jewish wisdom literature is often suggested as the antecedent of the Johannine λόγος. For instance the personalization of wisdom in Proverbs 8:22-31 is explained: “The Lord brought me forth as the first of his works, before his deeds of old. I was appointed from eternity, from the beginning, before the world began. . . . when he marked out the foundations of the earth. Then I was the craftsman at his side. I was filled with delight day after day, rejoicing always in his presence, rejoicing in his whole world and delighting in mankind.” (All Scripture quotations are from the New International Version unless indicated otherwise.) In addition apocryphal literature also expresses Wisdom as having been at God’s side in Creation (cf. Sir. 1:1-10; Wis. Sol.). In spite of the close parallels between Jewish wisdom literature and the Johannine Prologue concerning the λόγος, there are also significant differences. Andreas J. Köstenberger summarizes these differences in three points. (1) Wisdom literature presents Wisdom not as a second person of the Godhead but merely as a divine attribute already present at Creation; Jesus on the other hand is portrayed not merely as “with God” (1:1-2), but also as Himself God (1:1). (2) Wisdom is not cast as a person–it is merely a concept that is personified, a common literary device; but in John the exact opposite is present: Jesus, a real person, is presented in conceptual terms as the Word. (3) The fact remains that John did not use the term “wisdom” (σωφία) but the expression “the Word” (ὁ λόγος) (Encountering John, Encountering Biblical Studies [Grand Rapids: Baker, 1999], 53).
18. Most Johannine scholars are now viewing the Fourth Gospel as Hebraic or Jewish rather than Hellenistic. Thus the Prologue too is viewed as Jewish in background. Although various proposals have been given concerning the origin of the λόγος, its nearest and most logical antecedent is the Old Testament and the Hebrew term דָּבָר. The use of the word λόγος in John 1:1 ties the verse to Genesis 1:3, which describes God’s creative acts by the simple yet powerful command of His Word. This is affirmed also in Psalm 33:6, “By the word of the Lord were the heavens made, their starry host by the breath of his mouth.” It is also often repeated in the Old Testament prophets, where their writings often begin with the familiar words, “The word of the Lord came to” (Jer. 1:4; Ezek. 1:3; Hos. 1:1; Joel 1:1; Amos 3:1; Jon. 1:1; Mic. 1:1; Zeph. 1:1; Hag. 1:1; Zech. 1:1; Mal. 1:1). Isaiah 55 has also been proposed as the background of the Johannine λόγοß. Verses 9-11 state, “As the heavens are higher than the earth, so are my ways higher than your ways and my thoughts than your thoughts. As the rain and the snow come down from heaven, and do not return to it without watering the earth and making it bud and flourish, so that it yields seed for the sower and bread for the eater, so is my word that goes out from my mouth: It will not return to me empty, but will accomplish what I desire and achieve the purpose for which I sent it.” According to Köstenberger this passage is God’s personified Word (not Wisdom). He sees three parallels between these passages. (1) The λόγος is sent by God to accomplish a particular divine purpose. (2) It unfailingly accomplishes this purpose. (3) Afterward it returns to God who sent it (Encountering John, 54).
19. Ibid., 51.
20. Ibid.
21. W. Hall Harris, “A Theology of John’s Writings,” in A Biblical Theology of the New Testament, ed. Roy B. Zuck (Chicago: Moody, 1994), 191.
22. Moloney, Belief in the Word, 30.
23. Although various forms of chiasm have been proposed by scholars such as N. W. Lund, M. E. Boismard, P. Lamarche, A. Feuillet, Peder Borgen, and Morna Hooker, the one proposed by R. Alan Culpepper seems to be most thorough and thus serves as a good model for discussion. For a brief survey and critique of these works mentioned see R. Alan Culpepper, “The Pivot of John’s Prologue,” New Testament Studies 27 (October 1980): 1-31.
24. Ibid., 9-17.
25. Köstenberger, Encountering John, 57.
26. Craig A. Evans, Word and Glory: On the Exegetical and Theological Background of John’s Prologue, Journal for the Study of the New Testament Supplement Series (Sheffield: JSOT, 1993), 77-78. Evans shows the close parallel between the two passages by placing them side by side, using the Septuagint for the Genesis passage. The parallel concepts between the two passages are clearly seen by the identical Greek words used. The following are examples of commonly used phrases and words in Genesis 1 and John 1: “In the beginning” (ἐν ἀρχῂ); “God” (θεός); “came into being” (ἐγένετο); “light” (φῶς); “darkness” (σκοτία); “shines” (φαίνειν); “life” (ζωή); “man” (ἄνθρωπος).
27. Bruce K. Waltke, “The Creation Account in Genesis 1:1-3; Part IV: The Theology of Genesis 1,” Bibliotheca Sacra 133 (January–March 1976): 40.
28. Raymond B. Brown, “The Prologue of the Gospel of John: John 1:1-18,” Review and Expositor 62 (fall 1965): 430-31.
29. The Evangelist used ζωῃ thirty-six times in the Fourth Gospel. Seventeen of those times it occurs with αἰώνιοß, but it is clear from the contexts that the others also refer to eternal life.
30. Brown, “The Prologue of the Gospel of John,” 432.
31. The relationship between life and light is also found in later Jewish writings such as 1 Baruch 4:2. For a good discussion of the concept of light being derived primarily from the Hebrew Scriptures and its messianic significance see Ronald B. Allen, “In the Light of the Coming One,” Moody Monthly, February 1990, 32-33.
32. Borchert, John 1-11, 108-9.
33. Brown, “The Prologue of the Gospel of John,” 433.
34. Borchert, John 1-11, 111.
35. Moloney, Belief in the Word, 34.
36. For a more detailed discussion on this particular theme in John 5 see chapter 4 of the present writer’s dissertation, “The Relationship of the Seven Sign-Miracles of Jesus in the Fourth Gospel to the Old Testament” (Ph.D. diss., Dallas Theological Seminary, 2001), 153-95.
37. Borchert, John 1-11, 113.
38. The verb κατέλαβεν can be translated here as either “comprehended it” or “overcame it.” This is probably one of John’s many double meanings in the Fourth Gospel. For an excellent study of double entendre in the Fourth Gospel see Saeed Hamidkhani, “Johannine Expressions of Double Meaning: A Literary-Exegetical Analysis” (Th.M. thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary, 1992).
39. Many Johannine scholars recognize this significant connection between Exodus 33-34 and John 1:14-18 (Brown, The Gospel according to John(I–XII), 36; Beasley-Murray, John, 14-15; Carson, The Gospel according to John, 129, 134; Evans, Word and Glory: On the Exegetical and Theological Background of John’s Prologue, 79-83; T. F. Glasson, Moses in the Fourth Gospel (Naperville, IL: SCM, 1963); Anthony Hanson, “John 1:14-18 and Exodus 34,” New Testament Studies 23 (October 1976): 90-101; Craig R. Koester, The Dwelling of God: The Tabernacle in the Old Testament, Intertestamental Jewish Literature, and the Old Testament (Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1989), 100-115; Köstenberger, Encountering John, 52; and Moloney, Belief in the Word, 34-52.
40. Köstenberger, Encountering John, 52.
41. Evans, Word and Glory: On the Exegetical and Theological Background of John’s Prologue, 81-82.
42. Ibid.
43. Koester, The Dwelling of God, 102.
44. Ibid.
45. The uniqueness of the Logos is highlighted through the use of the word μονογενήß. Its Hebrew counterpart יחיד is used to describe Abraham’s son Isaac. The idea is not that Isaac is the only son, since Abraham had other sons, but that he is a “one-of-a-kind” son, since he is the child of the promise (cf. Heb. 11:17). For a good discussion of the significance of the word μονογενήß see Th. C. De Kruijf, “The Glory of the Only Son (John 1:14),” in Studies in John (Leiden: Brill, 1970), 111-23.
46. Ronald B. Allen, “Affirming Right-of-Way on Ancient Paths,” Bibliotheca Sacra 153 (January–March 1996): 10.
47. Carson, The Gospel according to John, 111.