The Prophets As Covenant Enforcers: Illustrated In Zephaniah

By John A. Mclean

Scholars from all points on the theological spectrum have recognized for many decades the relationship of the prophets to Israel’s covenant law.[1] John Bright recognized that the major points of prophetic criticism were “the worship of foreign gods and the violation of’ covenant law.’[2] He argued that the prophets “represent a reform movement whose aim it was to reawaken memory of the now largely forgotten Sinaitic covenant..”[3] Leon Wood concurred: “ The main task of’ the prophets, then, was reformation. They wanted the people to turn from what they were doing in their[4] sinful practices back to the teachings of the Law.” Herbert B. Huffmon, in his germane article, on this subject, illustrated various forms of the[5] prophetic “lawsuit” approach against the nation. Richard V. Bergren has identified twenty-five categories of mosaic covenant legislation that was prosecuted in the prophets.[6] The core of the mosaic covenant prosecution has been recognized from three major biblical passages under the heading of blessings and cursings. Douglas Stewart states: “The kinds of blessings that will come to Israel for faithfulness to the covenant are found especially in Leviticus 26:1–13, Deuteronomy 4:32–40, and 28:1–14. But these blessings are announced with a warning: if Israel does not obey God’s law, the blessings will cease. The sorts of curses (punishments) that Israel may expect if it violates the Law are found especially in Leviticus 26:14–39, Deuteronomy 4:15–28, and throughout Deuteronomy 28:15–32:42.”[7]

There is also a need to recognize other elements in prophetic covenant enforcement beyond the extensive focus on mosaic prosecution in these passages. The prophets enforced other covenants such as the Abrahamic, Davidic, Palestinian, and Aaronic/Levitical as well as promising future blessings that could only be fulfilled with the enactment of the New Covenant.[8] Although the Davidic, Palestinian, and Aaronic/Levitical covenants are legislated under the broad umbrella of the Mosaic Law, these are deserving of special attention because of their prominence in the prophets. The specific covenant is not always identified by the prophet but the categorical references to the covenant stipulations are evident.[9]

These covenants, along with the Mosaic, were a basis for prosecution and promise; condemnation and comfort; fear and hope to Israel. Each of these covenants contains specific promises and requirements that were enforced. If a fuller understanding of covenant enforcement is to be recognized, the exegete needs to examine the prophets in light of the covenant promises and requirements that are contained in each of the biblical covenants. The prophets’ prosecution involved judgment and deliverance. They proclaimed the Lord’s judgment as well as His commitment to fulfill His word in future generations. Covenant enforcement emphasizes both prosecution and promise, trial and triumph, condemnation and deliverance, litigation and consummation.

The following outline is offered as a basic understanding of the stipulations in these covenants that applied to subsequent generations of Israel.[10] The entire Mosaic covenant is not outlined as the stipulations are too numerous and have already been recognized in great detail by previous writers.[11] These provisions naturally overlap as covenants that were subsequent to the Abrahamic are an expansion and further definition of it. Some of these stipulations will then be illustrated in Zephaniah as evidence of the validity of this hermeneutical observation. The approach to Zephaniah is thematic rather than verse by verse in order to better illustrate the prophetic focus of covenant enforcement.

The Everlasting Abrahamic (Patriarchal) Covenant

1A Promises

1B I will make you a great nation Gen. 12:2; 17:4; (2:11; 3:20).

2B I will bless you Gen. 12:2; 22:17; (3:11–20).

3B I will make your name great Gen. 12:2; (3:20).

4B I will bless those who bless you Gen. 12:3.

5B I will protect you and curse the one who curses you Gen. 12:3; 15:1; 22:17; (2:4–5, 8–15; 3:6, 8, 19).[12]

6B In you all families of the earth shall be blessed Gen. 12:3; 18:17–18, 22:18; (3:9).

7B I will give this land to your descendants Gen. 12:7; 13:14–17; 15:7, 18–21; 17:8; 2 Sam. 7:10–11; (2:6, 7, 9; 3:12, 15, 20).

8B I will greatly multiply your descendants Gen. 17:2; 22:17.

9B I will bless Sarah with a son and descendants Gen. 17:16.

2A Requirements

1B You shall be a blessing Gen. 12:2.

2B You shall be circumcised in the flesh Gen. 17:10–11.

3B You shall keep the way of the Lord by doing righteousness and justice Gen. 17:1, 19; 18:19; (1:4–13, 17; 3:1–7).

The Everlasting Davidic Covenant

1A Promises

1B I will make your name great 2 Sam. 7:9; (3:15).

2B I will appoint a place for my people Israel 2 Sam. 7:10–11; (3:12–13).

3B I will give you rest from your enemies 2 Sam. 7:9–11 (3:13, 19).

4B I will establish forever your descendants’ kingdom 2 Sam. 7:12–16; (3:15).

5B I will correct him when he commits iniquity 2 Sam. 7:14; (1:8; 3:3).

6B Yahweh’s lovingkindness would always be with his descendants 2 Sam. 7:15; (3:15).

2A Requirements[13]

1B He must be chosen by God from Israel Deut. 17:15.

2B He shall not multiply horses Deut. 17:16.

3B He shall not multiply wives for himself which often resulted in foreign alliances and idolatry Deut. 17:17; 1 Kings 11:1–8; (1:8; 3:3).

4B He shall not greatly increase silver and gold Deut. 17:17; (1:13, 18, 3:3).

5B He shall write a copy of the Law for himself Deut. 17:18; (1:8; 3:3).

6B He shall read the law all his life Deut. 17:19; (1:8; 3:3).

7B He shall learn to fear and obey the Lord Deut. 17:19; (1:8; 3:3).

The Everlasting Palestinian Covenant

1A Promises

1B Physical restoration from captivity to possess the land Gen 15:13–14; 17:8; Deut. 30:3–5; (2:6, 7, 9; 3:12, 15, 20).

2B Multiplication of the population in the land Deut. 30:5.

3B Spiritual restoration by circumcision of the heart Deut. 30:6, 8; (3:9, 13).

4B Inflict curses on your enemies Deut. 30:7.

5B Prosperity in the land Deut. 30:9; (2:7, 3:20).

6B Judgment for disobedience Deut. 29:22–28; 30:17–18; (2:1, 2; 3:1–7).

2A Requirements

1B Keep the Mosaic Covenant Deut. 29:1, 9–21; 30:10; Ex 6:4–9 (1:14–2:2; 3:1–7).

2B Obey God with all your heart and soul Deut. 30:2.

3B Love the LORD your God Deut. 30:16–20.

The Everlasting Aaronic/Levitical Covenant

1A Promises

1B They will receive a portion of the offerings and gifts Num 18:8ff; Deut. 18:1–8; Jos 13:14.[14]

2B The LORD would be their portion and inheritance Num 18:20; Deut. 18:2; Jos 13:3.

3B They will receive the tithe from Israel Num 18:26.

2A Requirements

1B They were to keep charge of the tabernacle and temple Ex 29:9; Num 1:47–54; 3:1–4:49; 25:12–13; Deut. 18:5; (1:4–6; 3:4).

2B They were to support Aaron’s family in the performance of priestly duties on behalf of Israel in order to prevent plagues Num 8:19–22; 18:1–8; (1:4–6; 3:4).

3B They were to teach the Law to the people Lev 10:11; Deut. 17:9–11; 33:10; (1:4–6; 3:4)

4B They were to render judgment in difficult cases Deut. 17:9; 19:17; 33:8.

5B They were to be between the ages of twenty-five and fifty Num 8:24–25.

6B Aaron and his descendants were responsible for the duties of the High Priest Ex 29:29–30; Lev 8:1–36; Num 16:40–17:13.

The Everlasting New Covenant

1A Promises

1B Spiritual redemption and regeneration with a change of heart Is 59:20; Jer 31:33; 32:39; Ez 36:26–27; (3:9, 13).

2B Restoration to everlasting fellowship with God Jer 31:33; (3:15, 17).

3B Forgiveness of all sins Jer 31:34; 33:8; Ez 16:63; 37:27; (3:11).

4B The indwelling of the Holy Spirit Is 59:21; Ez 36:27; 37:14; (3:9, 13).

5B A greater knowledge of the LORD Jer 31:34; Ez 16:62; 37:28; (3:9).

6B Restoration of the land, Jerusalem, and the sanctuary Jer 31:38–40; 32:41–44; 33:8; Ez 36:28–30; 37:26; (2:6, 7, 9; 3:12, 15, 20).

7B Restoration of the righteous Branch of David to bring forth justice and righteousness Jer 33:14–16; 37:24–28; (3:15–17).

2A Requirements

1B Repentance from transgressions Is 59:20; Ez 16:61–63; 36:31; (3:11–12).

Covenant Enforcement Illustrated In Zephaniah

Zephaniah proclaimed that Yahweh would judge Judah and the nations because of pride and idolatry. He also offered a word of comfort in that Yahweh would purify a remnant to possess all of His promised blessings. The prophet’s purpose was to call Judah to repentance so that Yahweh could protect them from the coming day of His wrath. Zephaniah enforced the biblical covenants by prosecuting the people’s sins and promising future blessings to the remnant.

The Aaronic\Levitical covenant is the first one enforced in Zephaniah. Yahweh states that He will stretch out His hand against Judah.[15] He specifies that He is against the inhabitants of Jerusalem, the remnant of Baal, and idolatrous priests (הַכְּמָרִים).[16]

The priests were charged with participating in idolatrous worship in the Jerusalem temple. Zephaniah identifies three specific areas of idolatrous worship: the worship of Baal, the host of heaven, and Milcom (Zeph 1:4–6). These activities were clearly a violation of the priestly covenant as well as the mosaic code (Deut 17:2–7). They were commanded to teach the Law and lead the people in worship of Yahweh. Instead, the priests had led the people into syncretistic religious worship of bowing down before the host of heaven and Baal, swearing by Milcom, turning away from Yahweh, and seeking guidance from other gods. The nation had forgotten the prophetic prosecution of Elijah against the worship of Baal (1 Kings 18:21–46).

The priests are further indicted in Zeph. 3:4. They had profaned the sanctuary and had done violence to the Law. Robert B. Chisholm notes that “The priests, who were responsible for maintaining cultic purity and teaching the Law, had instead ‘profaned the sanctuary’ and failed to uphold the principles of the covenant (cf. Ezek. 22:25–26).”[17] The Law probably refers back to the mosaic code that regulated the priests as well as the covenants contained in it. They had profaned the sacred sanctuary by worshiping other gods and offering idolatrous sacrifices in it. The priests were charged with distinguishing between the clean and unclean (Lev 10:10), but they had made the sanctuary unclean (הִלְּלוֹ־קֹדֶשׁ) by their practices.[18]

They had done violence to the Law by transgressing it as well as teaching the people to break it. The violence in the sanctuary had done violence to the Law and Covenant of the sanctuary (1:9). Jeremiah described the transgressions of the sanctuary: “But look, you are trusting in deceptive words that are worthless. 9Will you steal and murder, commit adultery and perjury, burn incense to Baal and follow other gods you have not known, 10and then come and stand before me in this house, which bears my Name, and say, ‘We are safe’ — safe to do all these detestable things?” (Jer 7:8–10). The priests were charged with keeping the temple a house of worship but it had become a house for violence and thieves (Jer 7:11). J.M.P. Smith notes that “An important priestly function was that of delivering the judgment of Yahweh in cases of doubt and dispute; cf. Deut.. 17:8–12; 21:5 … The priests evidently sold the decision to the highest bidder and so brought the priesthood of Yahweh into disgrace in the eyes of all right-minded men.”[19] The priests were supposed to derive their support through tithes and offerings, not through treachery and oppression. The LORD was supposed to be their portion and inheritance but they were plundering the sacrificial system and hoarding the gifts for themselves. They were charged with keeping the tabernacle and temple in a state of holiness, but they committed both physical and spiritual adultery which resulted in desecration.

The next group that Zephaniah prosecutes is the princes,[20] the king’s sons (1:8). Zephaniah had special access to the royal court because of his family heritage (1:1). Even though the princes were not yet kings, the requirements of leadership were apparently still on them. Yahweh states that He would punish them, apparently for wearing foreign garments and participating in idolatrous worship. These foreign garments may indicate that the princes and king had entered into foreign alliances that were forbidden by the Law. Pagan garments may also evidence their participation in idolatrous worship.[21]

Theodore Laetsch maintains: “The Lord had regulated also the dress of His people to a certain extent (Num. 15:38f.; Deut. 22:11f.; Matt. 23:5). As the people of Judah had adopted the idols of the surrounding nations largely in the hope of gaining political or business advantages, so they adopted also their dress…”[22]

The officials or princes[23] were cursed because they acted like roaring lions (3:1–3). This metaphorical expression indicates the vicious treatment and abuse of the people by the princes. Ezekiel testified: “Her officials within her are like wolves tearing their prey; they shed blood and kill people to make unjust gain (Ezek 22:27).” This conduct violates the Davidic Covenant because they thwarted justice so they could hoard riches to themselves. Maria E. Szelles suggests: “These pictures show the cruelty, the greed, the insatiable appetite, along with the continual danger to life and limb … Such pictures occur often in the prophets (Mic. 3:1ff.; 7:4; Jer. 2:8; 5:31; 21:21–23; Ezek. 22:23–31).”[24]

The next covenant violation focuses on Gentile nations. Zephaniah identifies four major cities of the Philistines: Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod and Ekron (2:4-7). Each city would be destroyed by Yahweh. A woe is pronounced on the seacoast region of the Philistines but no specific reason is given for the judgment. This judgment resulted in uninhabited cities. This may offer a clue to the reason for judgment. Yahweh would judge the nations in the same way that the nations treated Israel. The law of retribution would fall back on Israel’s enemies (Joel 3:4-7). Amos sheds some light on the reason for the Philistine judgment: This is what the LORD says: “For three sins of Gaza, even for four, I will not turn back [my wrath]. Because she took captive whole communities and sold them to Edom, 7I will send fire upon the walls of Gaza that will consume her fortresses. 8I will destroy the king of Ashdod and the one who holds the scepter in Ashkelon. I will turn my hand against Ekron, till the last of the Philistines is dead,” says the Sovereign LORD (Am 1:6–7). This was a violation of the Abrahamic Covenant as the Philistines cursed Judah.

The second violation of the Abrahamic Covenant was charged against Moab and Ammon. Zephaniah states that these two nations taunted, reviled and boasted against the people of the LORD of hosts (1:8–10). David W. Barker observes that “Verbal assaults, insults (3:18; cf. Is. 25:8; 51:7; Ezk 16:57; 36:15) and taunts or blasphemies (cf. Nu. 15:30; 2Ki 19:6, 22; Is. 51:7; Ezk. 5:15) are directed against Yahweh’s covenant people …”[25] The pride of these nations caused them to exult in ill-will against God’s people. The one who curses Israel will be cursed (Gen 12:3). Ezekiel records some of the taunts by Ammon and Moab against Israel: “This is what the Sovereign LORD says: Because you said ‘Aha!’ over my sanctuary when it was desecrated and over the land of Israel when it was laid waste and over the people of Judah when they went into exile, 4therefore I am going to give you to the people of the East as a possession. 6For this is what the Sovereign LORD says: Because you have clapped your hands and stamped your feet, rejoicing with all the malice of your heart against the land of Israel, 8This is what the Sovereign LORD says: ‘Because Moab and Seir said, ‘Look, the house of Judah has become like all the other nations,’ 9therefore I will expose the flank of Moab, beginning at its frontier towns — Beth Jeshimoth, Baal Meon and Kiriathaim — the glory of that land. (Ezek 25:3, 4, 6, 8, 9).’”

Yahweh’s covenant relationship is emphasized in 2:9 as He addresses Himself as “The God of Israel.” Barker notes that “The resulting judgment is declared with great solemnity and power. Its certainty is ensured by invoking the mighty names and titles of God as ‘Yahweh of hosts’, emphasizing his nature as Divine Warrior … as well as Israel’s God. He is therefore universal, as well as having an individual relationship with his own covenant people.”[26]

The third violation and fourth nation that Zephaniah prosecuted was Ethiopia: “You too, O Ethiopians, will be slain by my sword (2:12).[27] ” Zephaniah gives no reason for the judgment. Isaiah indicates that this judgment was the result of Ethiopia’s oppressive acts towards Judah (Is 18:1–7). Ethiopia supported Egypt in Egypt’s warfare against Judah (Ezek 30:4–9). Yahweh promised to deliver Israel from her enemies and judge those nations that violated His people.

Assyria is the last nation that is specifically named by Zephaniah. Yahweh will stretch out His hand of judgment against Assyria and her chief city of Nineveh (2:13–15). The city will be desolated and the animals of the wilderness will inhabit her. One reason for judgment was that Nineveh exalted herself above Yahweh: This is the carefree city that lived in safety. She said to herself, “I am, and there is none besides me (2:15).” Charles L. Feinberg notes that “In her godless self-sufficient boasting, she had claimed that there was none beside her … Such self-sufficiency is the very attribute of God (Is 45:21–22). For this arrogance she is brought down to the basest desolation, a place for beasts only.”[28]

Nahum writes in greater detail concerning the reasons for Nineveh’s judgment. Nahum’s description of God’s attributes evidences that Yahweh’s execution of judgment was based on His covenant relationship to Israel: The LORD is a jealous and avenging God; the LORD takes vengeance and is filled with wrath. The LORD takes vengeance on his foes and maintains his wrath against his enemies. 3The LORD is slow to anger and great in power; the LORD will not leave the guilty unpunished (Na 1:2–3).” Nineveh’s pride had exulted Assyria above and against Israel so that they cursed and conquered Israel (Na 1:9–14; 2 Kings 18–19). This was a violation of the Abrahamic Covenant concerning the cursing of Israel. The Palestinian Covenant also promised judgment on Israel’s enemies.

One final pronouncement of judgment is given on all the nations. Yahweh will gather them together for a final judgment. He will pour out His indignation and burning anger on them. All the earth will be devoured (3:8). This world-wide judgment is referred to by other prophets and takes place at the climatic battle at Armageddon (3:19; Joel 3:2; Zeph 1:18; Rev 16:14).

The inhabitants of Jerusalem are prosecuted for a multitude of sins (3:1–7). Although the princes, judges, prophets and priests are identified in this section, the condemnation also falls on the general population. The specific charges against those in leadership positions demonstrates the special covenant relationship that Yahweh had with Israel. The priests, judges, prophets and princes of other nations were not charged with the same crimes that are described in this text. These charges were specific indictments against those who were in more responsible positions because they were under other covenant codes. The inhabitants were charged with general transgressions against the Mosaic Code. They had rebelled against God and had not accepted instruction. The city was filled with violence, injustice and corruption. Yahweh had set forth the principle of blessings and cursings in the Mosaic Code.[29] Zephaniah pronounced a cursing woe over Jerusalem because the inhabitants had rejected God and violated the Law.

Zephaniah also included covenant promises and fulfillments. These promises and fulfillments were given in order to provide hope for the future. Yahweh desired to bless His remnant in spite of His judgment on the people. The first covenant promise is stated in 2:6–7. The remnant will possess the seacoast and shepherds will pasture their flocks. The remnant of Judah will possess the Philistine region and live in security. The Lord their God will protect them and restore their fortunes. Ralph L. Smith points out that these fortunes are mentioned in Deuteronomy, Job, Psalms, and the Prophets. He argues that this refers to an eschatological event rather than simply a return from Babylonian captivity. He maintains that these fortunes are restored when Yahweh returns and reinstates the new and right order.[30]

These blessings will be in fulfillment of promises that are contained in the Abrahamic, Davidic, Palestinian and New Covenants. Restoration to a secure land, fellowship with God, and personal fortunes are all promises that are based on covenant fulfillments. The remnant will also possess the land of Moab and Ammon: “The remnant of my people will plunder them; the survivors of my nation will inherit their land (2:9).” The result of Israel’s deliverance and exaltation by Yahweh will be that all the nations of the earth will bow down to God (2:10).

Covenant fulfillment expands in 3:9–10. Yahweh will give the Gentiles (עַמִּים) purified lips “that all of them may call on the name of the LoRD and serve him shoulder to shoulder (3:9).” These blessings flow out of the Abrahamic Covenant to all nations, and are also associated with the fulfillment of the New Covenant (Is 57:19; Hab 2:14;). Jews (בַּת־פּוּצַי, 3:10) and Gentiles (עַמִּים, 3:9) will come from beyond Ethiopia in order to worship and bring offerings to Yahweh (3:10).

Zephaniah concludes his covenant enforcement with a major section that expounds on covenant promises and fulfillments (3:11–20). The people will feel no shame because Yahweh will purify the nation (3:11). He will be a refuge of protection to the humble and lowly people (3:12). The remnant will do no wrong, tell no lies, and live securely in the land (3:13). Yahweh will destroy their enemies, and the King of Israel; the Lord; will dwell in their midst (3:15–19). He will gather His people together, exalt Israel before the nations, and restore His people’s fortunes (3:20). Barker observes that “The blessings are sure and the promises can and will be fulfilled because it is Yahweh himself, the covenant-keeping God, who delivers them. The message of repentance and hope thus end as it began, with the identification of its divine source as Yahweh.”[31] These blessings are a partial fulfillment of promises contained in the Abrahamic, Davidic, Palestinian, New, and Mosaic Covenants.

Conclusion

Zephaniah, along with other prophets, prosecuted Israel and the nations for violations against Yahweh’s covenants. The nations were prosecuted for violating the Abrahamic Covenant when they cursed Israel and treated lightly Yahweh’s covenant people. The people of Israel were prosecuted by the Mosaic Code by which they had covenant with God to obey. Specific groups such as kings and priests had a greater accountability because they entered into additional and more specific covenants with God. The prophets proclaimed the New Covenant which would lead to the fulfillment of the other covenants. Yahweh’s greatness is seen in His covenant promises. The prophet’s were able to proclaim hope and a future to the remnant because God would honor their faith and His Word. Yahweh promised to fulfill His everlasting covenants and so we look forward to that blessed day.

This last chart represents an overview of major prophetic passages that apply to different aspects of covenant enforcement and fulfillment.

Notes

1. See Walther Zimmerli, The Law and the Prophets (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965), and Dennis J, McCarthy, Old Testament Covenant: A Survey of Current Opinions (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1.963), for clear, synthetic overviews of major scholarly developments.
2. John Bright, A History of Israel (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1959), 247. See also Gerhard von Bad, Old Testament Theology, 2 Vols. (New York: Harper and Row, 1962), 1:407–13,
3. Bright, 247.
4. Leon Wood, The Prophets of Israel (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979), 74.
5. Herbert B. Huffmon, “The Covenant Lawsuit in the Prophets,” JBL 78 (December 1959): 285-95. See also Frank M. Cross, Jr., “The Council of Yahweh in Second Isaiah,” JNES, XII (1953): 274-77; James Limburg, The Lawsuit of God in the Eighth Century Prophets (Ph.D. diss., Union Theological Seminary, 1969); and “The Root רִיב and the Prophetic Lawsuit Speeches,” JBL 88 (September 1969): 293-95.
6. Richard V. Bergen, The Prophets and the Law (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1974) 182-83. J. Carl Laney has summarized well the form of mosaic covenant prosecution, “The Role of the Prophets in God’s Case against Israel,” BibSac 138 (October-December, 1981), 313–35.
7. Douglas Stuart and Gordon D. Fee, How to Read the Bible for All its Worth (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1982), 151–52. See also Exodus 19; 24:7–8; 34.
8. The Noahic covenant of Genesis 9:1–17 is understood as a broad covenant over all people and nations of the earth. God’s promise is that He will not again destroy the earth by water. Man is commanded to not shed man’s blood, and to be fruitful; multiply; and populate the earth. The Noahic covenant is not specifically included in this article since it is not explicitly referred to by the prophets and is seen as a general covenant for all nations.
9. Malachi 2:4–8 is an example of a covenant that is specifically identified by a prophet.
10. The verses in parenthesis refer to passages in Zephaniah that are violated or fulfilled according to prophetic enforcement.
11. The initial acceptance of the Mosaic Covenant is found in Ex 19–28, with chapters 21–23 containing various stipulations, and chapter 24 recording the covenant ratification. The covenant is renewed in chapter 34 after Israel’s violation through the golden calf (32). Leviticus through Deuteronomy continue the development of legislation that is based on the Mosaic Covenant.
12. Alan Ross summarizes well the implications of this promise: “The two words for ‘curse, ʾarar and qalal, are synonyms and thus overlap in their meanings. But ʾarar, the stronger of the two, means to impose a barrier or a ban, a paralysis on movement or other capabilities, or to remove from the place and power of blessing. Qalal, ‘treat lightly,’ means to hold in contempt, speak lightly, or curse. Anyone who disrespects and treats Abram and his faith lightly will thus be removed from the place of blessing. The wording records this threat as a necessary part of the outworking of the promises. Allen P. Ross, Creation and Blessing (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988), 264.
13. There are many admonitions for kings and rulers in Proverbs and Ecclesiastes but these are not included since the major focus of this section is the Davidic Covenant within the framework of the mosaic code.
14. There is some question concerning the “everlasting” nature of the Aaronic covenant in light of Hebrews 7:11–25; 8:13 which states that there is a change in the priesthood. The word עוֹלָם is used in Num 18:8, 11, as well as other covenant passages (Gen 9:12; 17:7–19; 2 Sam 7:13–16), to indicate the eternal nature of the agreements. Jer 33:18–19 draws a parallel between the perpetual nature of the Davidic throne and the Levitical priesthood. Ezek. 44:15 ff. describes the Levitical functions during the millennial period.
15. This anthropomorphism is used frequently in the Old Testament to indicate Yahweh’s judgment on both Israel and the nations (Ex 7:5; 15:12; Is 14:26–27; Ez 14:13; 16:27; 35:3).
16. The הַכְּמָרִים are mentioned in 2 Kings 23:5; Hos 10:5; Zeph 1:4. The phrase (עִם־הַכֹּהֲנִים) is omitted in the LXX. This phrase was probably introduced as a gloss in order to help define the הַכְּמָרִים. J.J.M. Roberts notes that “cognates are attested in Canaanite (kumiru), Akkadian (kumru), and Aramaic (kumraʾ) as ordinary words for priest.” J.J.M. Roberts, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah, The Old Testament Library, (Louisville: John Knox, 1991), 172.
17. Robert B. Chisholm, Jr. Interpreting the Minor Prophets, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990), 209.
18. A better translation for הִלְּלוֹ־קֹדֶשׁ may be: “They defiled what is sacred.” The defilement affected more than just the sanctuary. It polluted all the articles, services, and people that were associated with the sanctuary.
19. John Merlin Powis Smith, Micah, Zephaniah arid Nahum, ICC, (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1911), 240.
20. The term הַשָּׂרִים may refer to princes, i.e. the king’s sons, or to officials in the kingdom. The latter interpretation may be better as the accompanying phrase וְעַל־בְּי הַמֶּלֶךְ definitely specifies the king’s sons. (See 1 Kings 4:2; 9:23; Jer 36:12; Hos 8:10). Zephaniah is probably identifying three groups who are guilty of similar violations (עַל־הַשָּׂרִים, וְעַל־בְּי הַמֶּלֶךְ, וְעַל כָּל־הַלּבְשִׁים).
21. The difficulty of suggesting the king’s participation is in determining who was the king during this time. If Zephaniah is writing prior to the reforms of Josiah, then this statement would be true in the lives of Manasseh and Amon. if Zephaniah is writing at the beginning of Josiah’s reign, then the king’s participation would not be a part of these violations.
22. Theodore Laetsch, Minor Prophets, (St. Louis: Concordia, Reprinted 1975), 360.
23. Larry L. Walker suggests this designation could represent the royal family in leadership positions. Zephaniah, Expositors Bible Commentary, (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1985), 557.
24. Maria Eszenyei Szeles, Habakkuk & Zephaniah, International Theological Commentary, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1987), 102.
25. David W. Barker, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries, (Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity Press, 1988), 106.
26. Ibid., 107.
27. The translation of כּוּשִׁים would be better understood as the Cushites instead of Ethiopians. Cushite kings dominated Egypt prior to the time of Zephaniah until they were defeated by Assyria in 670 B.C.
28. Charles L. Feinberg, The Minor Prophets, (Chicago: Moody Press, 1990), 230.
29. The blessings and cursings are summarized in Deuteronomy 28: “If you fully obey the LORD your God and carefully follow all his commands I give you today, the LORD your God will set you high above all the nations on earth. 2All these blessings will come upon you and accompany you if you obey the LORD your God (28:1–2).” “However, if you do not obey the LORD your God and do not carefully follow all his commands and decrees I am giving you today, all these curses will come upon you and overtake you: 16You will be cursed in the city and cursed in the country (28:15–16).”
30. Ralph L. Smith, Micah-Malachi, Word Biblical Commentary 32, (Waco: Word Books, 1984), 136. Smith also cites S. Mowinckel, The Psalms in Israel’s Worship, (Oxford: Blackweel, 1962) 1, 146–47; 11, 249–50; and E. Jacob. Theology of the OT (New York: Harper, 1958), 320, for support.
31. Barker, 120–21.