The Structure Of The Book Of Psalms

By Walter C. Kaiser Jr.

[This is the first article in the four-part series “Using the Context of the Psalms to Interpret Their Message,” delivered as the W. H. Griffith Thomas Lectures at Dallas Theological Seminary, February 2-5, 2016.

Walter C. Kaiser Jr. is President Emeritus, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, Hamilton, Massachusetts.]

It is rather unusual to find in recent biblical commentary and exegesis of an individual psalm any reference to the broader context of that psalm within the message and plan of the whole Psalter. It is all too frequently assumed that each psalm stands on its own and usually is isolated from any literary or theological connections with the whole book of Psalms and the psalms that surround it. However, in recent Psalms studies, a new emphasis is being placed on the broader context for interpreting a psalm in connection with other psalms that surround it in order to render a more accurate picture of what the psalmist meant. This new development is a welcome addition to treatment of the book of Psalms.

A major impetus in such a holistic contextual reading of a psalm in its setting within the Psalter is the recent work titled The Flow of the Psalms: Discovering Their Structure and Theology, by O. Palmer Robertson.[1] With overt and almost universal skepticism over the past centuries of biblical exposition about ever finding significant order and an intentional structure in the five books of the Psalter, many scholars have substituted modern form-critical approaches to the Psalms that do not look for the meaning of a psalm in its context in the whole book of Psalms. Instead, meaning is sought in the way the various psalm genres relate to cultural and social circumstances of the times they were written in. A good illustration of this type of substitution of the cultural circumstances in place of the context of the book of Psalms can be found in the work of the evangelical Old Testament scholar John Goldingay. He writes, “The Psalter as a whole does not have a structure that helps us get a handle on its contents. . . . [Instead, we must rely on the] more traditional critical approach.”[2]

But Robertson has raised the question: “Is there such a thing as a ‘flow [a plan or a purpose] of the book’ of Psalms?”[3] Robertson knows that his affirmative answer is a minority voice, for no end of discouragement is heaped on those who have attempted to analyze the Psalms to see if there is an intentional development of order and an ongoing coherent theme in these 150 chapters. An exception to the general pessimistic prospect for ever finding an overall intentional structure in the Psalms, however, can be seen in the contribution of John H. Walton.[4] He investigated the content of the Psalms, arguing that the content would function as a major key in detecting the structure of the Psalter as it was placed alongside the Davidic covenant. But Walton and Robertson have chosen an impossible task in the view of most scholars, for even the great evangelical scholar Franz Delitzsch (1813-1890) warned against it after reviewing the attempt of Gregory of Nyssa (335-395) to show that the five books of the Psalms lead upward like five steps to moral perfection. Delitzsch said, “We fear that in this direction, investigation has set before itself an unattainable end.”[5]

Nevertheless, Robertson plunged ahead in his quest to identify the intentional structure of the Psalms. He began by taking Psalms 1 and 2 as the two “poetic pillars” that, when taken together, anticipate the major themes that occupy the five books found in the Psalter. Psalm 1 traces the downward slope of the ungodly. But a different way of life marks the destiny of the righteous, for they love the law of God. To this emphasis can be added the Torah Psalms, of which Psalms 19 and 119 further demonstrate the centrality of the teaching found in the Torah to the book of Psalms.

A second major theme is found in these two poetic pillars of Psalms 1 and 2—the centrality of the person of the Messiah. Yahweh had established the presence of his messianic king in Zion, from which he would rule and reign over the nations of the world. In these two “poetic pillars,” Robertson argued, was to be found the overarching message of the Psalter. In all, Robertson thought that at least twelve different elements could be identified as part of this basic structure. But he acknowledged that the initial impression most readers and students of the Psalter have is that it is a helter-skelter, discombobulated assembly of various contributions that are detached from one another and act merely as stand-alone pieces.

Robertson was careful not to give the impression that the Psalter could be treated as if it were a theological treatise that was setting forth its theme in a predetermined logical order. After all, this is a collection of 150 psalms that span some 500 years and does not claim to be the work of any single person or group of persons. However, lest too much be made of that argument, recall that composition of the entire corpus of the 66 books of the whole Bible spanned some 1400 to 1500 years and involved 39 or 40 authors who lived on three continents: Europe, Africa, and Asia; and yet the Bible has one continuous story and promise-plan from start to finish. What, then, is the intentional structure that these 150 psalms evidence? Might that structure yield a cohesive progress in the purpose and plan of the Psalter? But before examining this concept any further, let us begin by analyzing the way Psalms 1 and 2 function from the rest of the Psalter.

Psalms 1 And 2

As has already been affirmed, Psalms 1 and 2 are not only introductory to the Psalter; they are foundational to the whole book in that, when taken together, they define the substance of all that will follow. Psalm 1 lays out the critical role of the law/teaching of God, while Psalm 2 presents the Davidic Son who was appointed by Yahweh to have a kingdom that will eventually extend to the ends of the earth. The two themes would be Torah and Messiah, or to put it in other words: law and gospel.

To describe the role of these two psalms in another manner, Psalm 1 identifies two groups of people in relation to God’s law/instruction: the wicked, who despise God’s law; and the righteous, who delight in his law. Moreover, the righteous are like a tree that is fed by a stream nearby and that therefore produces fruit throughout its life. Contrariwise, the wicked are like dried-up chaff that can be blown away, for when all is said and done, the wicked will perish and be left outside the group of the people of God. Meanwhile, the righteous will be vindicated by Yahweh and be known as his own.

Robertson argued that the other “poetic pillar” is Psalm 2, which has four major themes that come from the Davidic covenant. (1) Psalm 2 stresses the kingship of David over all the nations. Therefore rebelling against Yahweh’s kingship is an exercise in futility. Yahweh’s kingship is found throughout each of the five books of the Psalter. (2) Psalm 2 declares that the locale of Yahweh’s rule would be in Zion, that is, Jerusalem. Even though Yahweh is “enthroned in heaven” (2:4), the site for the rule of God is often mentioned as being in Jerusalem. Though that duality seems to present an unresolved problem, 2 Samuel 7:13 made it clear that David and his offspring would build a house for the Lord in Jerusalem. (3) Psalm 2 clearly points to the fact that Yahweh would permanently establish David and his dynasty. This theme is repeated and amplified in all five books of the Psalms except book IV. Finally, (4) Psalm 2 describes the merger of Yahweh’s throne with David’s throne as having already taken place.

It is for these reasons that Psalms 1 and 2 are regarded as poetic pillars and foundational entrances into the remainder of the content and argument of the Psalter. Thus there are two groups of people, the wicked and the righteous, who respond completely differently to Yahweh’s Torah, and there is his Messiah. But let us begin to apply Robertson’s thesis to books I, II, and III.

Book 1: Psalms 3-41

All the psalms in book I are attributed to David except Psalm 10 (which completes the acrostic poem of Psalm 9, which is said to be authored by David) and Psalm 33 (which is a quasi-acrostic with 22 verses, but not arranged in alphabetic order). Since David is the anointed man of promise in the messianic plan of God, this distinctive role explains why his person is so central.

Such a view is confirmed by the apostle Peter in Acts 4:25, where he, in response to the Jewish leaders who had threatened the disciples of our Lord, explained that God spoke “by the Holy Spirit through the mouth of [his] servant, our father David.” Peter followed up with a quote from the second Psalm, which he attributed to David, even though Psalm 2 is without a title in the Hebrew text.

David’s personal involvement in the construction of the psalms in book I can be seen in the fact that thirty-two of the thirty-seven psalms attributed to David in book I all have the singular personal pronoun “I” or the like in them. As such, it is important to appreciate that as the psalmist spoke of the messianic king, he in a similar way spoke to those who loved Messiah and showed they wanted to walk with him in fellowship. As Robertson put it, “As it fares with the messianic king, so it fares with each member of the messianic kingdom.”[6]

To illustrate his point, Robertson took up the discussion of Psalm 3. This psalm has David speaking in the first person as he deals with the tragic situation in which his own son Absalom led a coup against his father in order to seize the throne. Consequently, as David fared in this time of testing, so would the people of Israel fare. But the question that looms large here is Why was this incident placed as the first incident in the life of David in book I? Without a doubt, this attempted coup against David was a most agonizing situation for David, but how could that be of any help to those he hoped to minister to? This coup would affect David, but it did not appear to be directly related to those David was addressing in Scripture.

David appealed to God’s ancient word of promise to him and his line of heirs. Then he reminded the Lord of the promise he had made to him personally of a continuing dynasty/house, but he also strategically added that the dwelling place of the Lord would be in the midst of his people. The promise Yahweh would give to David would come not only to rescue him, but it would be a deliverance for his people just as well.

Robertson moved from a discussion of Psalm 3 to pointing out the structural role of Psalms 18 and 19; these two psalms coupled a messianic psalm with a Torah psalm, thereby mirroring Psalms 1 and 2. Here is Robertson’s point: The placement of Psalms 18 and 19 suggests an intentional arrangement of these two psalms so that the foundational or poetic pillars of Psalms 1 and 2 with their Torah and Messianic emphases could be highlighted in book I. Five kingship psalms (20-24) occurred immediately after Psalms 18 and 19.

Not once did Psalms 3-17 use messianic-kingship terminology. However, after David was established as messianic king with the defeat of his enemies, including King Saul, Psalm 18:50 suddenly announces: “He gives his king great victories; he shows unfailing love to his anointed, to David and to his descendants forever,” language that recurs a number of times when the language of messianic kingship, not used since Psalm 2, now reappears (20:6, 9; 21:1, 7).

But that is not all; beside the use of messianic terminology, five kingship psalms appear immediately, Psalms 20-24. These five form what Robertson calls a “poetic pyramid.” Psalms 20-21 present the kingship of Messiah, Psalms 23-24 present Yahweh as king, and Psalm 22 serves as the pinnacle, or central psalm. So while no psalm in 3-17 presents David as “the anointed one,” the “king,” or the one who has won great victories, Psalms 18-19 do just that. Some may stumble over the fact that Psalm 23 depicts the Lord as a shepherd, but that image bears out his kingly status as well.

What is true of the lack of references to Messiah’s kingship in Psalms 3-17 is also true of the law of God. Except for a single reference about God’s law with regard to the wicked in 10:5, multiple terms for the law of God do not occur until Psalms 18-19 and after (18:22; 19:7-11; 25:10; 34:11; 37:31; 40:8). Finally, the same could be said about there being no mention made of God’s teaching his way of living before Psalm 18, but it does surface after Psalms 18-19 (25:4-5; 27:11; 32:8; 34:11).

Another important contribution to understanding the structure in book I is the location of four alphabetic acrostic psalms (from the total of eight acrostic psalms that appear in the Psalter). These acrostics are somewhat distinctive in their poetic form in that they do not always place the alphabet in its usual sequence in the consecutive verses.

Significantly these acrostic poems are related to creation psalms and usually follow a creation psalm. Thus, there are only three creation psalms in Book I (from a total of eight for the Psalter), yet in each case a creation psalm precedes an acrostic psalm. Robertson[7] lays out these psalms this way:

Creation Psalm 8	Precedes acrostic Psalm 9/10
Creation Psalm 24	Precedes acrostic Psalm 25
Creation Psalm 33	Precedes acrostic Psalm 34

Such a teaming of a creation psalm with an acrostic psalm does not appear to be part of a random connecting of texts; it was done to fill out a key theological concept. Robertson along with many Reformed theologians emphasizes the “redemptive-historical” framework of the book of Psalms as the best way to preach and teach the book of Psalms, if not the whole of the Old Testament. This, of course, is important and is one of the keys to contemporary teaching and preaching from the Old Testament. But what often gets neglected is the doctrine of creation that supplies another dominant theme from the older Scripture, in which the One coming as Redeemer is also to be seen simultaneously as the sovereign Creator Lord who rules over all princes, principalities, powers, and authorities. He will not only redeem his people from their sin, but he will reign and rule as King of kings and Lord of lords forever and forever over all kingdoms and peoples. This is the aspect that the creation and acrostic psalms contribute to the redemptive-historical theme found in these psalms.

Therefore, to add to the picture Robertson has drawn, I would urge that the book of Psalms has three, not just two, points of entrance to the book. Robertson stressed the principles of the law (Ps. 1) and the Messiah (Ps. 2). I would add creation (Pss. 8, 24, 33).

The Psalter builds on the way of life found in the law, focused on the Messiah, who also created everything and to whom all rule and all authority will be concluded after the Messiah has provided redemption for all.

Conclusion To Book 1

Robertson suggests that book I focuses on the “confrontation” that the animosity raised between the two seeds—the way of the wicked and the way of the righteous. As the Lord’s anointed, David had experienced one struggle after another as he faced opponents to God’s kingdom. Yet the Lord delivered David from all his enemies and from Saul. In fact, Robertson challenges the current generation to memorize the acrostic psalms as a means of grasping the structural order of the Psalter. Doing so would produce an “inspired abbreviation” to the message of the whole Bible.[8]

Book II: Psalms 42-72

Book II has thirty-one psalms (42-72), which consist of seven psalms by the “sons of Korah” (42-49, plus one that appears without a title), followed by a single psalm by Asaph (50), then a collection of psalms by David (51-71) and a single psalm by David’s son Solomon (72). They appear in the following fashion.

Three Introductory Psalms: Psalms 42-44

That Psalm 43 is without title or ascription of authorship is best explained by the fact that Psalms 42 and 43 are bound together by the repeated refrain found in 42:5 and 11 and in 43:5. But why does book II open with the psalmist’s sense of despair and a feeling of rejection by Elohim? Could the psalmist be addressing the apostate northern kingdom of Israel as that “nation” (43:1) that showed no mercy? But this foe seems to be a national enemy, for God has scattered his people among the nations (44:11), even though he remains their king (44:4). Yet God’s unfailing love will rise up for Israel once again (44:26), despite their sinful failures.

Four Psalms On Elohim And Messiah’s Kingship: Psalms 45-48

The three introductory psalms are followed by four psalms that begin with a startling announcement of a royal wedding wherein the messianic king sits on his throne as truth and justice go forth (45:6-7). If we ask, How could Messiah be so suddenly presented as God in the context of three psalms of despair that have just preceded it? the answer is that this is done from the point of view of God’s covenant with David as a foundational pillar. That Messiah is called God (Elohim) is but an extension of God’s ancient promise to David in 2 Samuel 7:14-16, where it was promised that God would be Messiah’s “Father” and he would be his “son.” Both the redemptive-historical perspective and the creational sovereignty of our Lord are represented here. God’s rule would be united with David’s rule and the rule of his descendants. Elohim would dwell in his holy place, the city of the great king (50:1-3), for he would be the fortress of his people (46:4-5). Elohim would lift his voice and the earth would melt (46:6), for Elohim alone would be exalted among the Gentile nations over the whole earth (46:10). The creational sovereignty of our Lord and his Messiah is shown as he subdues all the nations under his feet (47:2-3, 8). The nobles of the nations assemble with the title of the people of the God of Abraham, “for the kings of the earth belong to God; he is greatly exalted” (47:9).

A Summons To Everyone From Two Intervening Psalms: Psalms 49-50

Now that Elohim and his Messiah are firmly established as king in Psalms 45-48, two psalms seem to intervene (49-50) before a second group of psalms by David is offered (51-71), observes Robertson. Both Psalms 49 and 50 open their message with a formal “summons” (50:4) to “all you peoples” (49:1) and “all who live in this world” (49:1). They are to “Hear this” (49:1), which will come in the form of a “proverb” and a “riddle” (49:3-4). Since Elohim is the king over the nations of the world, God has some “words of wisdom” (49:3) that will give them understanding. So what is this word of counsel? In a way similar to the form and style of writing in Ecclesiastes, the psalmist warns against pursuit of riches or even wisdom itself in place of a search for God.

The Second Collection Of Davidic Psalms: Psalms 51-71

Before surveying this second Davidic collection, it is important to inquire why the general name for God, “Elohim,” prevails over the covenantal name of “Yahweh.” In book II, “Yahweh” appears only 32 times whereas “Elohim” has 197 occurrences in Psalms 42-72. As a point of comparison, in book I “Yahweh” far exceeds the usage of “Elohim,” for “Yahweh” appears 278 times, while “Elohim” appears only 48 times in book I. To add to the facts of this difficult question, David’s confession of his sin with Bathsheba in Psalm 51 in book II uses “Elohim” exclusively while his confession of the same sin in book I (Psalm 32) uses “Yahweh” exclusively. Concerning the “fool,” Psalm 53 replaced the “Yahweh” of Psalm 14 from book I, using “Elohim” four times. Psalm 70 also uses “Elohim” three times, two of which are where the identical portions of Psalm 40 use “Yahweh.” Finally, Psalm 71 uses “Elohim” nine times and “Yahweh of Hosts” twice, while Psalm 31 uses “Yahweh” nine times and Elohim twice. Clearly, the editor or writer of book II favored “Elohim” in place of “Yahweh.” Even though he also infrequently used “Yahweh,” for some reason he deliberately preferred “Elohim” as the name for God. So what was his reason for doing so?

Many suggestions have been offered as a solution to this problem, but the one that makes the most sense is that this second collection of Davidic psalms in book II makes frequent reference to “foreigners,” “all mankind,” and the “peoples.” Twelve of the twenty-one Davidic psalms in book II refer to non-Israelite peoples. This is in stark contrast to book I, where only six of the thirty-nine psalms with Davidic superscriptions refer to non-Israelite peoples. This use of the more general name for God in book II is similar to the fact that the book of Ecclesiastes shows a preferential use of the name “Elohim” rather than “Yahweh.” This supports the observation that the message of Ecclesiastes was designed as God’s word to the nations of the world at large. “Yahweh,” of course, was the name reserved for those who had a personal relationship to the Lord. Thus, Genesis 1 uses “Elohim” (“God”) thirty-five times as it depicts his relationship to the whole created order, but God’s name is “Lord God” (“Yahweh Elohim”) when the man and the woman are brought into the picture (2:4-24). This same differentiation can be seen in Psalm 19, in which the psalmist uses “Elohim” when describing the heavens and the earth in the first part of the psalm; when in the second part of the psalm he turns to the law, it is the law of “Yahweh.”

The Message Of The Davidic Collection Of Psalms In Book II: Psalms 51-71

The tone of addressing David’s enemies in book II is different from the tone of address in other parts of the Psalter. The enemy is addressed directly by the pronoun “you.” Yet the psalmist feels compelled to praise Elohim from the midst of the nations (57:9-10). Even though they were David’s enemies, David must praise Elohim right in the midst of the nations, for they must hear about Elohim’s love for them and for all humanity. The goodness of Elohim can be seen in his common grace. In fact, the root of hope for the nations rests in the love and common grace of our Lord to the nations.

More than that, the kingdoms of the earth must also sing the praises of Elohim (64:9). This is in accord with what God promised in the Abrahamic covenant of Genesis 12:1-3—it would be by means of the seed of Abraham that all the nations of the earth would be blessed. So if David struggled with his enemies in book I as they attempted to “confront” him in order to do away with God’s promise-plan to establish his messianic kingdom, now in book II David does everything in his power to “communicate” with these same enemies about the love and grace of God.

The Triumph Of Messiah’s Rule: Psalm 72

The psalmist concludes book II with a psalm from King Solomon, Psalm 72. Elohim here endows the Messianic king with justice (v. 1), as evidenced in the fact that he will save the children of the needy (v. 4). Messiah’s reign will last as long as the sun and moon continue to shine (v. 5). Messiah’s rule will extend from sea to sea, even to the ends of the earth (v. 8). All the nations will bow down to him and serve him (v. 11), for his name will endure forever (v. 17).

Conclusion

The book of Psalms, then, is not a hodge-podge collection of what for the most part are isolated, self-contained psalms. Instead, the five books of the Psalter contain an intentional structure that embraces three foundational entry points into the continuing message of this book: the law, the Messiah, and his creational sovereignty over all persons and things. Great is the word of the Lord. Great is the Anointed One of the Lord and great is the rule and reign of Yahweh of Hosts!

Notes

1. O. Palmer Robertson, The Flow of the Psalms: Discovering Their Structure and Theology (Phillipsburg: NJ: P. & R., 2015). This marvelous study of the Psalms will set the mark for psalm studies for years to come.
2. John Goldingay, Psalms, Volume I: Psalms 1-41 (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2006), 36-37.
3. Robertson, The Flow of the Psalms, 50.
4. John H. Walton, “Psalms: A Cantata about the Davidic Covenant,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 34 (March 1991): 21-31.
5. Franz Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the Psalms (repr., Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1959), 1:19. Of course Gregory of Nyssa was far off the mark in his choice of a guiding structure.
6. Robertson, The Flow of the Psalms, 63.
7. Ibid., 80.
8. Ibid., 82.