Action Apologetics: Charity And Social Justice As Ways Of Doing Apologetics

By Timothy S. Yoder

[Timothy S. Yoder serves as associate professor of theological studies at Dallas Theological Seminary in Dallas, Texas.]

When people speak of Christian apologetics, what they typically have in mind, I believe, is what can be termed intellectual apologetics. We conceptualize apologetics as the task of defending the faith by marshaling true and rigorous arguments to establish the existence of God, the inspiration of the Bible, the saving ministry of Jesus, and the truths of the gospel. The models we have in mind are Paul in Athens, interacting with the Stoic and Epicurean philosophers, and reasoning with the Jews in the synagogue in Thessalonica. We may think of Justin’s debates with Trypho or Matteo Ricci’s[1] use of Confucian categories to defend Christianity to Chinese scholars. We may recall Pandita Ramabai,[2] a Hindu scholar whose study of the Christian Scriptures revealed to her the superiority of the Christian religion, or Nabeel Qureshi,[3] a Muslim who came to faith in Christ after a rigorous comparison of the Quran and the Bible (Muhammad and Jesus). Books like Aquinas’s Summa contra Gentiles, Lewis’s Mere Christianity, McDowell’s Evidence that Demands a Verdict, and Keller’s The Reason for God characterize this approach.

In addition, the debates and discussions about various types of apologetics typically entail discussions between methods like evidentialism, classical apologetics, presuppositionalism, Reformed epistemology, and the like.[4] All of these methods of apologetics gather under the umbrella of intellectual apologetics. As important and necessary as intellectual apologetics is, it is important to recognize that other apologetic approaches are valid, useful, and necessary for the task of defending the faith. In this paper, I will begin by outlining five different approaches to apologetics. Then, I will focus on one of them, an approach that I call action apologetics.[5]

This reorientation of attention to apologetic approaches (as opposed to methods) is driven by a desire to pay attention to the way that people actually come to the faith. While there are many people who, like Nabeel Qureshi and Pandita Ramabai, come to saving faith because of rational considerations, there are also numerous individuals whose journey to Christ seems to hinge on elements that are not intellectual in nature.[6] Clear evidence of this assertion comes from the regular Testimony feature found in issues of Christianity Today magazine since at least 2015. Reading these accounts, I was impressed by the fact that some people testified that the most important elements in their faith journey were not an intellectual argument, but rather the lynchpin was an act of love and charity, a spiritual encounter, an individual’s faith story, or even an artistic creation. So, I began to analyze testimonies, paying attention to these broadly sociological or human factors in coming to faith to understand the apologetic task more broadly.

Some might object to this project in this way, “Well, it is clear that these sorts of sociological factors are significant for evangelism and making disciples, but this is not apologetics. Apologetics is defending the faith. It means that one must make intellectual arguments for the truth of Christianity. Not everyone who comes to faith needs apologetics, but don’t water down the notion of apologetics to include non-intellectual approaches.” My response to this objection is to argue that while this perception of the nature of apologetics may be one way to interpret Peter’s command to “always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give a reason for the hope that you have” (1 Pet 3:15), in fact, the practice of apologetics in the NT and in church history suggests that apologetics is broader than just intellectual apologetics.[7] This paper places an emphasis on stories, and I think that a consideration of actual accounts of people coming to faith reveals the need to broaden our understanding of apologetics.[8] In addition, it is noteworthy that all of these approaches are aimed at adults who already have a worldview. The conversion from one worldview to another is a kind of change. What is the impetus for this transformation? At times, it is reason and strong arguments, but at other times, the key seems to be a non-cognitive factor. Thus, I think it is fair to call it apologetics. The truth is that apologetics (unlike evangelism) is not a biblical word, so there is more liberty to stipulate its meaning and application. In the final analysis, I think that the best response to this objection is found in an overview of the five different approaches to apologetics that I have delineated, which is the next section of this article.

Five Approaches To Apologetics

1. Intellectual Apologetics is making truth claims and constructing arguments in support of the rational integrity of the gospel and the Christian worldview as a whole. Intellectual apologetics is inter-disciplinary, as the apologist can utilize evidences and truths from philosophy, science, history, archaeology and any other academic discipline in support of the gospel. The maxim that “all truth is God’s truth” is clearly relevant here. Paul’s address to the Greek philosophers in Acts 17 is perhaps the most frequently-cited biblical example of intellectual apologetics, but Jesus’ conversation with Nicodemus in John 3 exemplified this approach as Jesus drew theological implications from OT teachings that he expected Nicodemus to know. I have already given several examples of this approach in the beginning of this article. Lee Strobel’s testimony began with his attempt to examine the new Christian faith of his wife. Using the same set of reasoning tools that he employed as a successful criminal and legal journalist in Chicago unexpectedly produced in him the conviction that the claims of Christianity were true. The historicity and credibility of the Bible and Jesus convinced him that he should become a Christian.[9]

2. Cultural Apologetics is the effort to make the gospel attractive by employing music, art, and other cultural means. Since it is frequently non-propositional, cultural apologetics operates in the realm of the beautiful, as opposed to the realm of the true. It tends to be more emotional or intuitive than discursive. This approach is exemplified by Nwoye, a character in Chinua Achebe’s book Things Fall Apart about an African village that grapples with the message of Christian missionaries.

It was not the mad logic of the Trinity that captivated him. He did not understand it. It was the poetry of the new religion, something felt in the marrow. The hymn about brothers who sat in darkness and in fear seemed to answer a vague and persistent question that haunted his young soul. He felt a relief within as the hymn poured into his parched soul. The words of the hymn were like drops of frozen rain melting on the dry palate of the panting earth.[10]

Dana Gioia, a Christian poet who served on the National Endowment for the Arts, asserted, “Art provides the most immediate and useful way in which God’s voice is heard in the world. Dante, Mozart, Michelangelo, Gaudi, have brought more souls to God than any minister, because they speak to us in a way that is more fundamentally human and memorable.”[11] Perhaps the most poignant example of cultural apologetics comes from the beginning of Les Miserables when the recently-paroled Jean Valjean stays overnight at the bishop’s home. Spoiling his generosity, the desperate Valjean steals silver plates and utensils. When he was captured by the gendarmes and brought back to the church to face his crimes, the bishop took pity on Valjean and offered compassion instead of judgment. He asked Valjean why he didn’t also take the candlesticks the bishop had given him. The question was rooted in a false premise (the bishop had made no such offer) but, more importantly, it was an unexpected and shocking picture of the grace of God, and this one action completely changed Jean Valjean’s life trajectory. It is, I think, the single most dramatic account of divine forgiveness in all imaginative literature, and it is the epitome of cultural apologetics.[12] The gospel message is dramatized in an exquisitely artistic way with the result that it is made attractive, desirable, even irresistible.[13]

The strongest biblical example of cultural apologetics is the story of Bezalel and Oholiab, who were commissioned as craftsmen to make various works of art in the tabernacle. In Exodus 31 and 35, the work of these men is described. It is noteworthy that they were filled with the Holy Spirit for their work, which focused attention on its apologetic value. The tabernacle, as well as the temple later on, were purposed to proclaim the glory and character of God. Their beauty displayed the glory and majesty of God and, by extension, his message. Their various artistic works were intended to produce awe and reverence in those who saw them. Rather than an argument in favor of the truthfulness of God’s message, they made attractive the nature and person of God. They prompted belief by beauty. The glory of the Lord (that is, his beauty) filled the tabernacle (Exod 40:34).

3. Personal Apologetics uses one’s own testimony as an example of the faith commitment that is commended to others. In the Bible, Paul shared the story of his dramatic conversion before King Agrippa in Acts 26. Beginning in verse 9, he recounted the details of his testimony with the clear intent that those listening should believe as well. We know that his story made the audience squirm. Festus interrupted Paul with the bizarre comment that his great learning has driven him mad (26:24). Agrippa, showing a bit more restraint, wondered that Paul thought he could convert him in such a short time (26:28). Paul’s response revealed his apologetic intention. He wished that all of them would become as he was, a believer in Jesus. The use of testimony as a tool of evangelism and apologetics has been a mainstay of the church throughout its history. Two famous examples from the twentieth century include Chuck Colson’s Born Again and Nicky Cruz’s Run Baby Run. The best-selling account of Louis Zamperini’s imprisonment by the Japanese during World War II includes an account of his conversion at a Billy Graham rally and the life change that resulted.[14]

Personal apologetics is not intellectual apologetics as such because it is an individual account of one’s experience. Experiences can only be rational or discursive if they are generalized or universalized. Of course, one may tell one’s testimony and then present arguments why one’s own experience of being forgiven and saved can be shared by others. Thus, personal apologetics can be appended to other approaches. On its own, however, it is a subjective, experiential account. This characteristic, of course, is both its strength and weakness. It is a bold statement of the spiritual work done in one’s own life, as Paul, Colson, Cruz, and a host of others exemplify. However, the listener can determine that this story and experience is valid only for the testifier and thus conclude that it is irrelevant for him or her.

4. Power Encounter is a miraculous, spiritual event in which divine power is wielded to defeat the enemy. This exercise of divine power is an overwhelming indication of the fact of the one true God, and is, thus, a pathway to faith. Sometimes there is a human agent, as when a person exorcises a demon, while other times God acts without human causality, as in the visions and dreams that Muslims report of Jesus.[15] Power encounter is frequently detailed in the Bible: Moses before Pharaoh in Exodus 7; Elijah and the prophets of Baal in Mount Carmel in 1 Kings 18; Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego in the furnace of Nebuchadnezzar in Daniel 3; and, of course, the many miracles of Jesus in the Gospels. Power encounter is still a facet of life today, as people are brought to the faith by means of answered prayers, healings, and other miracles, visions of Jesus, and the kind of spiritual war that is observed in animistic and shamanistic communities.

The account of the conversion of a village of Yanomamo people in the book Spirit of the Rainforest is a contemporary example.[16] The spirits that resided in the shaman known as Jungleman begged him not to send them away in favor of the most feared spirit, known as Yai Pada. They said he was the most evil spirit, but in truth he turned out to be not only the most powerful but also the one that was truly gracious, the Spirit of the one true God. When Jungleman realized that Yai Pada was the most powerful and also the best spirit, he sent the other spirits away and became a follower of Yahweh. It should be acknowledged that power encounter often seems to operate with significantly less human agency than the other approaches I have identified. This observation raises some interesting questions about human planning and intentionality with regard to this approach.

5. Action Apologetics is the witness to the gospel done by acts of love, sacrifice, and justice. Defense of the faith in this approach is the display of the god-like virtues which overcome the evil and corruption of the world. It is the exhibition of the goodness and grace of God in the world. Personal apologetics is rooted in the experiential and subjective, and power encounter is the transcendental breaking into the natural. Intellectual apologetics is grounded in the truth of God, cultural apologetics in the beauty of God, and action apologetics reveals the goodness of God. The transformation and redemption of humans and even of institutions is a strong defense of the reality of God who loves sinful humans and wishes to redeem them. Action apologetics mirrors the nature of God and thus persuades by the conquest of love over hate, good over evil, and justice over oppression.

Having given a brief thumbnail sketch of action apologetics to round out the five different approaches to apologetics, I will proceed in the next section to give a fuller accounting of this way of doing apologetics. The reason for highlighting this specific approach in this paper is not because I think it is more important or useful than the other four. It is not a part of my concern here to rank or order the approaches by any kind of standard. I focus my attention on action apologetics because it fits well with current discussions of social justice, and also because I think it is the most underdeveloped of the five approaches.

Action Apologetics

During John the Baptist’s imprisonment, he heard accounts of Jesus’s activity and sent word asking whether Jesus was in fact the one that they were expecting or if they should look for another. I will not comment on John’s motivation for these questions, whether they arose from doubt, differing expectations, or some other factor. What is noteworthy is the manner of Jesus’s response. Luke wrote, “At that very time, Jesus cured many who had diseases, sicknesses and evil spirits, and gave sight to many who were blind. So [Jesus] replied to the messengers, ‘Go back and report to John what you have seen and heard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy are cured, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good news is preached to the poor’” (Luke 7:21–22). Alluding in part to the prophecy of Isaiah 61, which he proclaimed to be fulfilled in Luke 4:21, Jesus provided proof of his identity as the real Messiah not in terms of the truthfulness of his message, but in terms of actions of mercy and power. The miracles of healing are matched with the gospel proclamation to the poor. The gospel is not just expressed in true propositions, but also by love in action.

In fact, the Bible is full of passages that assert the mission of God’s people in terms of goodness and justice, and these passages can be tied to the task of apologetics and evangelism. James 1:26–27 says that true religion is the care of widows and orphans, and Micah 6:8 proclaims what the Lord requires, “To act justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God.” In the parable of the sheep and goats of Matthew 25, Jesus provocatively asserted that actions done to the poor and marginalized (to feed the hungry, to provide drink for the thirsty, to take in strangers, to clothe the naked, to take care of the sick, and to visit those in prison) are in fact actions done to him (25:35–40). A dramatic example of this kind of obedience is found in the story of Fr. Maximilian Kolbe, a Polish priest who was imprisoned in a Nazi concentration camp for his political activity. When a prisoner from the camp escaped, the Nazis declared that ten prisoners would be starved to death in response. Names were drawn at random, and one was a man who pleaded with the Nazis for his life, saying that he had a wife and children to which he longed to return. The Nazis refused, but then Fr. Kolbe stunningly offered to take the man’s place, seeing as the priest had no wife or children. The Nazis accepted this exchange. Kolbe was killed, and the other man survived the war, returned to his family and lived a full life into his 90s.[17]

The Bible frequently declares the need for justice for the poor as one of God’s primary concerns. In addition to Matthew 25 and James 1 which have already been cited, another key passage is Amos 5. Among the elements of this strongly-worded harangue are these accusations against unjust Israelites. “You trample on the poor and force him to give you his grain” (5:11). “You oppress the righteous and take bribes and you deprive the poor of justice in the courts” (5:12). “Hate evil, love good, maintain justice in the courts. Perhaps the Lord God Almighty will have mercy on the remnant of Joseph” (5:15). Acting for the sake of a just society and doing what is necessary to ensure the rights of the poor and oppressed is right because it mirrors God’s own concern for those on the margins of society (Pss 12:5; 35:10; 41:1–2; 113:5–8).

It is not enough, however, simply to establish that it is right to care for widows and orphans, the poor and oppressed to ground these requirements as action apologetics. This point is just the first of two threads in the argument. It is also necessary to show that these sorts of actions are indeed a way of defending the faith and representing the gospel. The second strand of my defense of action apologetics is to show that our love for others is an aspect of our witness. These two components together provide a solid biblical foundation for action apologetics.

In several places in Isaiah and Jeremiah, the Lord chastised the people of Israel for their lack of attention to social justice issues and stressed its importance in pleasing him (see, for instance, Isa 2; 58; and Jer 22). It is instructive to note that the beginning of Isaiah contains the prophecy of the mountain of the Lord where all peoples will come to learn his ways (2:2). God will settle disputes between the nations, and swords will be beaten into plowshares (2:4). What is hinted here is that the justice of the Lord becomes a vehicle for universal proclamation of God’s truths. In Jeremiah 22:3, the Lord commands his people, “Do what is just and right. Rescue from the hands of the oppressor the one who has been robbed. Do no wrong or violence to the alien, the fatherless, or the widow, and do not shed innocent blood in this place” (NIV). If these commands are not kept, the palace will become a ruin (22:5), and the people from many nations will notice it and wonder why the Lord did such a thing to this city. The reason will be that they were not faithful to the covenantal commands (22:8). These two instances in Isaiah and Jeremiah point to a truth that will be made more explicit in the NT. Acts of justice or injustice are a kind of proclamation. Justice and love are a way of proclaiming the Lord’s nature to the world, and a failure to do so serves as a negative testimony.

A clearer assertion that moral actions entail a proclamation of God’s gospel is found in NT passages like Matthew 5:16 where Jesus identifies his followers as the light of the world, “Let your light shine before men, that they may see your good deeds and praise your Father in heaven.” Jesus also told the twelve that if they love one another, then all men will know that they are his disciples (John 13:35). Paul instructed the Philippian church to conduct themselves in a manner worthy of the gospel (1:27), and to work out their salvation with fear and trembling (2:12). If they do so, then they can be “children of God without fault in a crooked and depraved generation, in which [they] shine like stars in the universe as [they] hold out the word of life” (2:15–16). Jesus announced his ministry and dramatically proclaimed himself the Messiah in Luke 4 by reading from Isaiah 61:1–2 that the good news is preached to the poor, the imprisoned are freed, the blind are healed, and the oppressed are released (Luke 4:17–19). This passage is an important affirmation that the gospel message is closely associated with acts of love and social justice.

It is not sufficient to make only a theological case for action apologetics. We need to consider our history and, specifically, how the gospel has spread in areas and communities that were not Christian. An instructive answer comes from the way that ancient Romans were converted to Christianity. The story of how the Roman Empire, which persecuted the church so strenuously in the first two hundred years of its existence, became in fact Christian is a great historical puzzle. There is no lack of historians wishing to weigh in on it. One contemporary voice in this discussion is Rodney Stark, who uses sociological tools to bolster the traditional elements of historiography. Stark names two important factors that contributed to the success of the gospel in overcoming Roman opposition. One is how Christians cared for the sick, particularly those suffering from the plague. While the famous physician Galen escaped the plague by moving out of the city, Christians stayed to care for the sick and dying, even those without family connections. Their testimony of selfless love and altruism was a vivid contrast, and it paved a path for Romans to reject their old gods in favor of Jesus.[18] A second factor was the status of women in early Christianity as compared to pagan Rome. Stark’s chapter on the role of women in The Rise of Christianity is rich and full of interesting reflections on things like birth rates and exogamous marriages, topics that go beyond the arena of action apologetics. However, Stark is convinced that the rise in status for women in the church and the leadership roles that they played contributed significantly to the Christianization of Rome.[19] These two factors, the courageous and compassionate care of the sick and neglected, even at great personal cost, and the opportunity for women to play a more meaningful role in society, exemplify two of the aspects of action apologetics—personal sacrifice and love, and a commitment to social justice.

Two contemporary conversion stories illustrate the unique dynamic of action apologetics. The first is the story of Rosaria Butterfield, who became a Christian despite her background as a lesbian professor and outspoken advocate for the LGBTQ agenda.[20]

She published an editorial in the local paper that minced no words in affirming her political and ethical agenda. A wave of letters pro and con came in her direction, but one of them stood out. It was from a local pastor, who did not agree with her editorial but nevertheless invited her to dinner. The letter was kind and respectful, and Rosaria couldn’t get it out of her mind. Eventually, she accepted the invitation. To make a long story short, they became friends and, after many conversations, she became a Christian. The intellectual conversations were a clearly a part of her testimony but so was the loving outreach of a Christian stranger, who extended hospitality and friendship to a person whose worldview was quite different. It is easy to see in this pastor a contemporary reflection of the Good Samaritan.

A second example is also dramatic but in a different way. One of the most famous examples of Christian ministry in the 1950s and 60s was the work of David Wilkerson, a country preacher from the Midwest, in the ghettoes of New York City to violent gang leaders. Wilkerson brazenly encountered Nicky Cruz, one of the most dangerous and feared gang leaders in the city. As Wilkerson approached, Cruz immediately threatened, “You come near me, and I’ll kill you!” Just as quickly, Wilkerson responded, “Yeah, you could do that. You could cut me up into a thousand pieces and lay them in the street, and every piece will still love you.”[21] The courage and authenticity of Wilkerson broke through the tough exterior, and after a series of interactions, Cruz gave his heart to Jesus.

Two other contemporary examples are instructive. A lot of attention has been paid to two rather significant individuals who are engaged in social justice initiatives with important success. Kevin Bales has written several books highlighting the scourge of human trafficking. He founded an organization called “Free the Slaves,” which is making a real difference in our world. His work has inspired an impressive series of results, including important legislation and a small army of workers trying to rid the world of slaves. His goal is to rid the world of slavery, and he has a plan that is making a difference. Bryan Stevenson opened a small legal practice in the South, and it became his passion to work for the release of individuals (typically African Americans) who were wrongly convicted and unjustly sentenced to life sentences or the death penalty. His book Just Mercy inspired a movie of the same title, and Stevenson’s work is providing an important corrective to racist judicial decisions.[22] Both Bales and Stevenson are Christians. Bales is a Quaker, and Stevenson is an evangelical. However, neither do the work that they do explicitly in the name of Jesus. Their efforts to alleviate evil in the world are commendable, brave, and greatly needed. There is little doubt of their heroism in these regards. However, I believe that it falls short of apologetics. It is the kind of work that needs to be done but from a gospel perspective, it is missing a necessary piece. For it to be action apologetics, the work needs to be more directly linked to Jesus and presented in the context of the gospel.

Christianity Today Testimonies

I will conclude this paper on action apologetics with two testimonies from Christianity Today. They exemplify well this approach—that acts of love, charity, and social justice can prove to be a proclamation of the gospel. The first story is of David Nasser, a boy who grew up amid the Iranian Revolution under Ayatollah Khomeini in the 1970s. His family’s situation was violent and chaotic, but they managed to emigrate to the United States, settling in Texas. But their new life wasn’t much better for a teenager who didn’t fit in. David was bullied constantly and felt fragile and insecure. Things were starting to change, however. People at a local church had volunteered to help at his father’s restaurant during a moment of crisis, and he was deeply touched by their kindness. David attended a youth rally and most of his classmates ignored him, except one very popular football player who shared his Bible during the study. The youth group began to visit David, sharing their faith. These acts of love led David to read the Bible, and when he came to the story of Peter stepping out of the boat, he knew that this act of faith was what he needed to do. Eventually, his whole family became Christian. The turning point in the story was the unexpected acts of Christian kindness in a world of hurt and pain.[23]

Juliet Liu Waite’s testimony begins when her grandparents and their children (who are Juliet’s aunts, uncles, and her mom) were helicoptered out of Saigon, South Vietnam, as that city fell in 1975. Her grandmother had been a 20-year translator and assistant to the US military there, and the family made a harrowing escape from the war-torn country in the closing days of the Vietnam War. They had left with only the clothes on their back, and they suffered separation and near starvation in refugee camps before finally arriving in Indiana to start their lives over. It was there that a small church acted on their conviction that God was leading them to sponsor a refugee family. The church found them housing and provided food, clothing, and furniture. Despite not knowing the language, this refugee family loved going to church to experience the generosity and love of the church. Eventually, three generations, including Juliet (who was born in the US) became Christians. They were saved by the gospel that was first communicated to them through acts of love and charity, as this church met their physical needs in Jesus’s name. Now a pastor, Juliet marvels at the story that began before she was even born. Here are her words,

Each time I heard my aunties recount this story, in my child’s mind I pictured my mother’s family coming across the sea, journeying through the waters. These were the waters of their Exodus, the waters of their own baptism, the waters that God would part in order to show himself as their Deliverer. This was their Passover story—the night they were rescued from certain death by a God who protected them when they had no home, and numbered them among his people.

This is also my story. I grew up knowing that I existed because somewhere in the world, a group of people believed that a merciful God was asking them to show mercy to those who needed it. I grew up knowing that this sort of God was a God worth trusting. His mercy echoes down through the generations.[24]

Notes

1. Vincent Cronin, The Wise Man from the West: Matteo Ricci and His Mission to China (San Francisco: Ignatius, 2016). Another resource for the lives and contributions of important apologists is Benjamin Forrest, Joshua Chatraw and Alister McGrath (eds.), The History of Apologetics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020).
2. Helen Dyer, Pandita Ramabai: The Story of Her Life (public domain).
3. Nabeel Qureshi, Seeking Allah, Finding Jesus (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2014).
4. See Brian Morley, Mapping Apologetics (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 2015) as an excellent example.
5. For clarity’s sake, I will use the word method to signify the different ways of doing intellectual apologetics (like evidentialism, presuppositionalism, etc.). I will use the term approach to highlight the different apologetic ways at the higher level of conceptualization (intellectual apologetics, actions apologetics, and the like).
6. I assert and affirm that saving faith is a gift of the Holy Spirit (Eph 2:8) and not something that happened by human work or merit. Salvation cannot be explained in purely human terms, like for instance, the logical power of an argument of natural theology. It is clear, however, that human factors are significant and play a role in the salvation process. Paul was saved due the direct revelation of Jesus on the Damascus road (Acts 9:4–5), but nearly everyone else who comes to faith in the NT (like Lydia in Acts 16:14–15 or the Philippian jailer in Acts 16:29–34) has a human who fulfills some proclamational role in their faith journey. My interests in this paper are in these sociological or human roles found in the various approaches, as opposed to the theological or divine agencies.
7. Unless otherwise noted, all Scripture quotations are from the New International Version.
8. I will employ approximately twenty stories in this paper, and they range over many years, cultures and traditions within Christianity. It is not a part of my present agenda to consider the many theological differences or to wrestle with the Catholic or Presbyterian or Pentecostal or Baptist distinctives in each testimony. Rather, I am interested in the conditions that led each individual to proclaim their faith in Christ.
9. See the preface of Lee Strobel, The Case for Christ (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998) for a short account of Strobel’s testimony. A similar approach is found in Warner Wallace, Cold-Case Christianity (Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 2013).
10. Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart (New York: Anchor Books, 1994), page 104. First published in 1959.
11. Cited in Brett McCracken, Hipster Christianity (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2010), 170.
12. An excellent recent work on this topic is Paul Gould, Cultural Apologetics (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2019).
13. Two memoirs that reveal the influence of cultural apologetics are C. S. Lewis, Surprised by Joy (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1956) and also Holly Ordway, Not God’s Type (San Francisco: Ignatius, 2014). In both individuals, their atheistic, materialistic perspectives were challenged by beauty and artistry that could only be attributed to God.
14. Laura Hillenbrand, Unbroken (New York: Random House, 2010). It should be noted that Hillenbrand did not intend the story as apologetics, as she is not a Christian. In that her book contains an account of his testimony, however, it has that function. The Holy Spirit can use this story to draw people to himself, even though we see a difference between Hillenbrand telling Zamperini’s story and Luke recounting Paul’s.
15. Tom Doyle, Dreams and Visions: Is Jesus Awakening the Muslim World? (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2012).
16. Mark Ritchie, Spirit of the Rainforest, 3rd ed. (n.p.: Island Lake Press, 2019).
17. An account of Kolbe’s sacrifice is given by Paul Mariani in Martyrs, ed. Susan Bergman (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996), 218–23.
18. Rodney Stark, The Rise of Christianity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 85–88.
19. Stark, The Rise of Christianity, 128.
20. Rosaria Butterfield, The Secret Thoughts of an Unlikely Convert (Pittsburgh: Crown and Covenant, 2012).
21. David Wilkerson and Elizabeth Sherrill, The Cross and the Switchblade (New York: Berkley, 1962).
22. See, for example, Bales’ most recent book Blood and Earth by Kevin Bales (New York: Spiegel & Grau, 2016) and also Just Mercy by Bryan Stevenson (New York: Spiegel & Grau, 2016).
23. David Nasser, “I Escaped from Iran, but Not from God,” Christianity Today, January/February 2019, available at https://www.christianitytoday.com /ct/2019/january-february/david-nasser-escaped-iran-not-god.html.
24. Juliet Liu Waite, “The Waters of Their Exodus,” Christianity Today, December 2018, pp. 79–80.