Apocalyptic Piety: A Comparative Analysis Of The Ethics Of Revelation

By Jonathan A. Campbell

[Jonathan A. Campbell is Assistant Professor of New Testament at Burman University, Canada.]

The final book in the NT canon is known for its symbolic language and vivid description of end-time events. In this way it resembles many other apocalypses from the Second Temple period. In this study, four Second Temple apocalypses are surveyed for their ethical exhortation in order to understand better the ethics of Revelation. Specifically, the works of 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, 4 Ezra, and the Apocalypse of Abraham serve as comparanda that are reviewed to determine how apocalyptic writings tended to express paraenetic teaching. Some, like the “Epistle of Enoch” in 1 Enoch and much of 2 Enoch, express their ethics via imperatives directed at the reader. Others, including the “Book of the Watchers” in 1 Enoch and the Apocalypse of Abraham, show their readers the desired ethics through the way in which protagonists and antagonists are portrayed. While they express their ethical teachings in various ways, the content of those teachings is quite similar for all four works: the righteous should worship God alone and should treat their fellow humans well. These works serve as a comparative base by which Revelation is evaluated. It is shown that Revelation distinguishes itself from other apocalypses by focusing almost exclusively on the worship of God, rather than on human interrelations. Even those passages in Revelation that condemn injustice view such injustice as being ultimately derived from false worship. This departure from typical apocalyptic tendencies helps to emphasize the book’s call for the unadulterated worship of God.

* * *

Definitions of Second Temple apocalyptic literature tend to focus on form rather than function. The Apocalypse Group working with the SBL Genres Project produced the following definition for the apocalyptic genre:

“Apocalypse” is a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative frame-work, in which a revelation is mediated by an otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a transcendent reality which is both temporal, insofar as it envisages eschatological salvation, and spatial insofar as it involves another, supernatural world.[1]

This definition accurately describes the form of most apocalyptic literature from the Second Temple period, but it has little to say about the purpose of such revelations.[2] Some have suggested that the apocalypses were written to encourage the reader in difficult times, with little interest in ethical exhortation.[3] Yet most agree that the authors of these works sought to promote particular behaviors.[4] The specific behavior being urged varied based on the context and ideology of a given author, but certain commonalities persist due to their shared Judaic background.[5] This study seeks to come to a better understanding of the ethics of the biblical book of Revelation by comparing its paraenetic passages with those of other Second Temple apocalypses. By understanding the parameters of the genre, one can better see how John aligns with and departs from similar works. This in turn allows us to understand better the book’s theology. In analyzing these works, it will be useful to identify both explicit imperatives as well as implicit characterizations.[6] Both elements served authors in conveying their desired ethical teachings. Care must be taken whenever one undertakes to compare disparate ancient compositions.[7] Nevertheless, it will be shown that it was common for these apocalypses to encourage the reader both to worship God alone and to care for humanity. Revelation will prove to be an outlier, because it exhibits a greater emphasis on proper devotion to God.

I. Ethics In Apocalyptic Literature

1. First Enoch

The composite pieces of apocalyptic literature collectively known as 1 Enoch hold pride of place among Second Temple writings. Not only does the collection inform much of what is known regarding the apocalyptic genre, it was also quite influential during its own time. Multiple 1 Enoch fragments were found at Qumran, and Jude assumes the reader knew it. Its composite nature makes it an invaluable resource because it demonstrates a variety of ways the apocalyptic genre could relate to ethical exhortation.

The “Book of the Watchers” (chs. 1–36) mostly avoids direct moral or ethical exhortation. In the first five chapters, which serve as an introduction to the following apocalyptic vision, the righteous are assumed to be righteous and the wicked assumed to be wicked. Richard Bauckham notes,

In chs. 1–5 there is no exhortation to the wicked to repent or to the righteous to continue in obedience. There is simply announcement of judgment on the apostates and mercy and peace for the righteous. Presumably, there is no possibility of forgiveness for the wicked, any more than there is for the paradigm apostates, the Watchers (12:4–14:7). As for the righteous, the text simply presupposes that they are living obediently and need primarily the reassurance that justice is going to be done.[8]

Bauckham is correct that these first five chapters do not attest any direct imperatives. Yet the author does characterize the wicked and the righteous in order to give the reader a negative and positive example, respectively. The wicked are impatient and law-breakers who have spoken slanderous and harsh words against God (5:4). The righteous are wise and humble people who refrain from sin (5:8). While not directly addressing the reader, the author nonetheless describes ethical actions which the reader would be expected to emulate.

Characterization is used similarly throughout the rest of the “Book of the Watchers.” Illicit sexual unions brought the curse of sin upon the world (6:2), which led to bloodshed (7:5; 9:1) and deception (8:3). Notably, sins against both God and humanity are denounced. Injustice on the earth, presumably against humans, would be destroyed (10:16). Yet the “Book of the Watchers” also predicts that a time would come when sin would be no more: “All the children of men are to become righteous and all nations shall serve and bless me [God], and all shall worship me” (10:21; cf. 36:4).[9] Those who failed to worship God or treat humans with justice would be punished (18:15; 22:13). We will see that most Second Temple apocalypses, either explicitly through exhortation or implicitly through characterization, encourage their readers to honor God and live honorably toward one another.

In the “Similitudes of Enoch” (chs. 37–71) there continues to be a clear distinction between the righteous and the wicked.[10] Yet more information is given regarding the actual acts which place individuals into these categories. Economic and political power is a primary consideration in the “Similitudes.”[11] The wicked who “possess the earth will neither be rulers nor princes” and “shall be delivered into the hands of the righteous and holy ones” (38:4–5). “Their faces shall be filled with shame, and their countenances shall be crowned with darkness” (62:10). This is because “oppression cannot survive his judgment” (50:4). On the other hand, those who “believe in the name of the Lord of the Spirits” will be called “holy ones” (43:4; cf. 41:2; 45:1). They choose to drink from the fountain of righteousness (48:1) and hate the oppression found in the world (48:7–8). They are the ones who “seek light and find righteousness with the Lord of the Spirits” (58:4). In short, the righteous are those who abandon evil practices of oppression and seek the righteousness of God. While the author of the “Similitudes” does not directly call his audience to repentance, he provides an example that the reader would feel compelled to follow.

The “Astronomical Book” (chs. 72–82) is more concerned with cosmological reflections than ethical exhortations. Nevertheless, there are brief calls for action. One should live a moral life: “Blessed is the man who dies righteous and upright, against whom no record of oppression has been written, and who received no judgment on that day” (81:4). Furthermore, the reader is exhorted to adopt the 364-day calendar proposed by this book. Those who do are wise and blessed, while those who do not are equated with sinners (82:4–8). The “Astronomical Book” thus exhorts its readers to be righteous and wise.

In the “Dream Visions” (chs. 83–90) we see similarities with the “Book of the Watchers,” in that the people are divided between the righteous and the wicked based on their actions. Prayer to God is viewed as a righteous deed (83:8; 84:1), and God is called upon to sustain those who are righteous and upright (84:6). In the Animal Apocalypse (chs. 85–90), the wicked are those who perpetrate violence against God’s people (85:4; 86:6; 89:19) or allow their eyes to go blind (89:54; 90:7), the latter likely referring to false worship. These offenders will be destroyed because of their evil actions (90:19). Like the “Book of the Watchers,” the “Dream Visions” does not issue explicit imperatives to its readers. Rather, in telling a stylized story of Israel’s history it reminds its readers to emulate the heroes of righteousness and faith from their past.

The “Epistle of Enoch” (chs. 91–107) contains the clearest examples of ethical exhortation in 1 Enoch. Notably, the “Epistle” is also the least like a typical apocalypse.[12] Within the most apocalyptic section of the “Epistle”—the Apocalypse of Weeks (ch. 93)—the elect are chosen “from the eternal plant of righteousness,” but only after the seventh week (93:10). This allows for repentance and ethical living. Citing 1 En. 91, 94, and 99, Sappington says, “Enoch’s point here is simple: ‘Obedience leads to the blessedness I have predicted, while disobedience leads to judgment and condemnation. Therefore, obey God’s commandments so that you might escape judgment and enjoy the reward of the righteous!’”[13] This call is given not just to the Jews, because eventually “all people shall direct their sight to the path of uprightness” (91:14).[14] In chs. 94–100, the Woe Oracles warn readers about evil deeds while interspersing calls to live righteous lives. These woes generally focus on the greed and oppression characteristic of the wicked (94:6–9; 95:5–7; 96:4–8; 97:8–10; 98:13; 99:15; 100:7). Condemnation of infidelity toward God is not as prevalent in this section, but it is nonetheless present (94:8; 99:7, 14).[15] In short, the “Epistle” exhorts its readers to embrace justice and live a pious life in order to avoid the woes and receive the blessings.

First Enoch serves as an important starting point for surveying the various ways the apocalyptic genre could relate to ethical exhortation. Because of its age and widespread reputation, it likely had at least an indirect influence on Revelation.[16] Furthermore, the various sub-genres within 1 Enoch make for a useful comparison to John’s Apocalypse. Both works include epistles with ethical exhortation couched within a thoroughly apocalyptic framework. In 1 Enoch, ethical commands and implicit characterization tend to support fear of God and proper relationships with people.

2. Second Enoch

This second book attributed to Enoch illustrates the full extent to which the apocalyptic genre could be used to call its audience to righteous living. It is difficult to miss its ethical pronouncements. Indeed, “The ethical component is spread over the whole work.”[17] The righteous are the ones who

suffer every kind of tribulation in this life and who afflict their souls, and who avert their eyes from injustice, and who carry out righteous judgment, to give bread to the hungry, and to cover the naked with clothing, and to lift up the fallen, and to help the injured, who walk before the face of the Lord, and who worship him only—for them this has been prepared as an eternal inheritance (9:1).[18]

This passage shows the dual nature of righteousness. First, God’s people will not be oppressors. They carry out God’s will by clothing the naked, feeding the hungry, and giving justice to the helpless (42:6–9; 44:4–5; 50:2–6; 63:1). In a maxim akin to the Golden Rule (Lev 19:18; Matt 7:12), Enoch instructs his readers, “That which a person makes request from the Lord for his own soul, in the same manner let him behave toward every living soul” (61:2). The wicked are those who oppress others (10:5). The righteous person must live a life of social justice.

Second, 2 Enoch also calls its readers to monotheistic worship of God.[19] God requires sacrifices and the offering of the firstborn (2:2; 66:2). The Lord blesses those who bring offerings to him, not because he needs material goods, but because by such offerings people may show themselves worthy (45:1–3; 62:1). The wicked are those who do not give God his due (61:4). Blessings would come in the form of future rewards (see below) but also in temporal benefits: “But he who brings a sacrifice of clean beasts, it is healing, he heals his soul” (59:1). The righteous would prove their worth through piety, just as much as through humanitarianism.

The exhortations in 2 Enoch serve a dual purpose. First, like most other apocalyptic works, there are admonitions to remain faithful through difficult times.[20] Assaults, tribulations, and suffering would come upon God’s people, but they would be blessed if they patiently endured (50:2–6; 62:1; 66:6).[21] In addition to this common apocalyptic refrain, 2 Enoch directly ties one’s actions to one’s eschatological fate. “A blessed afterlife is strictly a reward for right ethical behavior.”[22] There are divine scales in which a person’s actions would be weighed (44:5; 49:2–3; 52:15). The beatific place is prepared for those who do righteous acts (9:1). This is in stark contrast with 1 Enoch, which assumes some concept of election. God’s reward is even called “compensation,” as the rightful earnings for those who worship him (45:1). For this apocalyptic work the illocutionary force is clear: live a righteous life so that God will reward you with blessings in the life to come. It defines righteousness both as right relations with other people and as proper worship of God.

3. 4 Ezra

The apocalyptic book of 4 Ezra was written near the end of the first century AD to account for the destruction of the Jerusalem temple. When Jews looked back on the Babylonian captivity, they could point to their own idolatry as the reason God would allow such a calamity to befall them. The same could not be said of the destruction of the temple in 70 AD, because, as is evident in the early chapters of 4 Ezra, Israel on a whole was assumed to be righteous.[23] This nationalistic outlook permeates the work. Ezra asks Uriel, his heavenly guide, whether the righteousness of other nations could compare with that of Israel (3:31–32), who were chosen by God (5:23–27) and who faithfully believed in the covenants (5:29). In part Ezra is correct. Only Israel had responded favorably toward the law, while the rest of the world rejected it (7:22–24). Yet simply being a part of Israel was not enough to receive mercy from God. Uriel explains to Ezra that only a small portion of Israel—a remnant—would keep the law faithfully (6:25; 7:28; 9:7–8). Ezra learns that “only the righteous few within Israel will be saved” because of the widespread unfaithfulness toward the law.[24] Similarly, only a very few Gentiles would be saved (3:36).

For 4 Ezra, what would distinguish the remnant from the majority of Israel who would fall short? In other words, what should the audience of 4 Ezra do to make sure they are blessed? Although it is expressed in a variety of ways throughout the work, in one sense the answer is simple: keep the law.[25] Those who keep the law would store up treasures of works with God, resulting in their salvation (6:5; 7:77; 8:33). Given the importance of keeping the law, it may be surprising that 4 Ezra does not expound more upon what specifically must be done.[26] While the connection between righteous living and salvation is perhaps stronger here than anywhere else in Second Temple apocalypses, little time is devoted to defining clearly what it means to keep the law. Through characterization we learn that the wicked would “scorn the law” and hate “those who fear God” (7:78), trampling over them (8:57). Furthermore, they sin against God by saying “in their hearts there is no God” (8:58). The righteous would be willing to face danger in order to keep the law (7:18, 89). They are told to be humble (8:49) and to “rule over your minds and discipline your hearts” so that they could obtain mercy (14:34). As with the previous works, 4 Ezra expects its readers to fear God and live honorably toward humanity as a means by which they might keep the law and obtain its rewards.

4. Apocalypse Of Abraham

Like 4 Ezra, the Apocalypse of Abraham was composed after the destruction of the Jerusalem temple. It likely should be dated between the end of the first and beginning of the second century, due to an apparent reference to the work in the second-century Recognitiones.[27] The apocalypse tells the story of how Abraham disavows his father’s idols and instead choses to worship the true God by giving a sacrifice. Once he proves his piety toward God, an angel is sent to show him the mysteries of the cosmos. Abraham is brought up to heaven, where he sees visions of heaven and hell. He is shown the evil of the world, the destruction of the temple, and finally the judgment upon the righteous and the wicked. The work begins by satirically showing the ineptness of man-made idols, and ends by showing the overwhelming power of God’s justice.

The Apocalypse of Abraham demonstrates ethical teaching in two ways. First, Abraham himself serves as an example of righteousness that the audience should naturally want to emulate. In the first portion of the story, Abraham shows his wisdom by questioning the efficacy of man-made idols (3:8; 6:2).[28] He is willing to endure hardship for the sake of purity: “And I said, ‘It is only proper to endure evil that I may throw my mind to purity and I will expose my thoughts clearly to him’” (6:4). He is considered righteous because he sought the true God in lieu of false idols (8:3). His seeking pays off; God calls him “chosen” (14:2; 20:6), and he is rewarded with apocalyptic visions.[29] Because of this characterization, readers could hope for a similar acceptance into God’s chosen people if they too abandoned idols for true worship.[30]

The second way in which the Apocalypse of Abraham exhorts its readers is through juxtaposing the fate of the wicked with that of the righteous. In a vision Abraham is shown the evils of the world. Murder (24:5), fornication (24:6), jealousy (25:1), and child sacrifice (25:2) are given as examples of the wickedness of creation. These will provoke God to bring judgment, revenge, and perdition (22:4; 27:7). Yet these evils are not inevitable.[31] There will be those who walk the path of the righteous. Those who “strive in the glory of my name toward the place prepared beforehand for them” would be protected (29:17). While the wicked would be burned up and devoured by worms, “those who do justice, who have chosen my will and clearly kept my commandments” would “rejoice with merrymaking” (31:3–4). Throughout the Apocalypse, the emphasis continues to be true worship versus idol worship. Yet the delineation goes beyond worship. Evils like murder and jealousy are also condemned, indicating the importance of intra-human harmony. The Apocalypse of Abraham expects its audience, like Abraham, to strive to worship the true God and live a righteous life because of the coming judgment.

This survey of four Second Temple apocalypses has attempted to illustrate how works in this genre urged their readers to remain faithful to God and to live righteously in their actions toward one another. They did so by exhorting the reader and by characterizing the righteous and the wicked. Some, like the “Epistle of Enoch” and 2 Enoch, used imperatives and direct exhortation to make their ethical teachings explicit. Others, like the Apocalypse of Abraham and much of 1 Enoch, rely more on characterization. Through their narratives they paint a picture such that the reader will feel compelled to emulate the righteous characters and to avoid the actions of the wicked. These two vehicles for ethical teaching will be demonstrated once again in the NT book of Revelation.

II. Ethics In Revelation

Based on the typical rubric for Second Temple apocalypses, we would expect John to describe the wicked as those who forsake God and oppress God’s people. We would also look for discussions about perseverance under the pressures of persecution. Indeed, some have suggested that Revelation’s main purpose is to provide hope in the midst of persecution.[32] It is undoubtedly true that some of John’s audience were experiencing persecution and needed comfort and a call to perseverance.[33] Yet Bauckham is correct that encouragement “was only one of the needs of the seven churches.”[34] As we shall see, Revelation was written to address a wider range of issues. The readers are told several times that they will be judged based on their actions (2:23; 20:12–13; 22:11–12), so they should expect to be informed on which actions will place them among the holy. I will first discuss those passages that encourage piety toward God before examining possible calls to humanitarian ethics.

1. Piety And Proper Worship

Through commands and characterization John encourages his readers to serve and worship God. This is one of the primary themes of the book.[35] God appointed his people as priests to serve him (1:6) continuing into the time of the new earth (22:3), and the 144,000 serve God day and night (7:15).[36] Characters with positive traits, such as the angels, the twenty-four elders, and the blessed martyrs, are regularly shown worshiping God/Jesus, especially through song (4:8–11; 5:7–14; 7:9–12; 11:16–18; 14:3, 7; 15:3–4; 19:4–8, 10; 22:9).[37] By putting worship into the mouths of his protagonists, John demonstrates to the reader that they too should be in the practice of worshiping God. The saints also testify about Jesus (1:2, 9; 6:9; 12:11, 17; 17:6; 20:4) and are victorious over God’s enemies (2:7, 11, 17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21; 15:2; 21:7). By waging a spiritual war against the forces of evil, the reader is able to emulate the angels in heaven (12:7–8). Those who choose to follow God will ultimately receive his seal (7:3–5; 9:4; 14:1; 22:4). Revelation thus places great emphasis on serving and worshiping God. As Stefanović says, “Revelation makes clear that the test will not be denial of worship, but rather who is worshiped.”[38]

John expects that many of his readers will experience persecution. Perseverance is therefore a crucial corollary to faithful piety. “Endurance” (ὑπομονή) is a “key ethical term in the Apocalypse.”[39] The letters to the seven churches include frequent direct calls to endure despite persecution (2:2–3, 10, 13, 24; 3:8, 10), and martyrs are positively characterized throughout the rest of the book (6:9; 7:14; 12:11; 13:10, 15; 14:12; 20:4). The righteous would remain faithful to Jesus, no matter what tribulations they faced.[40] Persecution may come from the “Jews” (2:9; 3:9),[41] the image of the beast (13:15), or the prostitute riding on the beast (17:6). These antagonists are all reckoned as enemies of God and persecutors of God’s people.

Related to faithfulness is Revelation’s special interest in purity. This is symbolized in the frequent description of “white” (λευκός) clothing and the regular calls to keep clean (3:4–5, 18; 4:4; 6:11; 7:9, 14; 14:4; 15:6; 19:8, 14; 21:27; 22:14). Cleanliness and purity were considered essential elements for being in the presence of a holy God.[42] The blessing upon those who remain clothed likely has a similar connotation of purity (16:15). Several of the churches are instructed to remain theologically pure as well. False apostles (2:2) and Nicolaitan practices (2:6, 15) were to be rejected.[43] A false prophet, given the unenviable name Jezebel, also threatened to contaminate the Christian community (2:20, 24).[44] While her specific teachings are unclear, she meets the OT definition of a false prophet, who “turns you from the way in which the Lord your God commanded you to walk” (Deut 13:5; cf. Deut 13:6–8; Jer 23:13, 32).[45] God’s people would avoid these deceptions, as well as any other polluting factors.

Because much of Revelation’s positive characterization involves serving and worshiping God, it should come as no surprise that John uses negative characterization for those who worship false gods. The churches are first warned to avoid food that had been offered to idols (2:14, 20). This warning foreshadows the idol worship (9:20; 21:8; 22:15) and beast worship (13:4, 8, 14; 14:9, 11; 19:10) that would be the downfall of the wicked. They would receive the mark of the beast because of their idolatrous worship (13:16–17; 16:2; 19:20). Failure to cease these spiritually adulterous practices would result in judgment from God (14:11; 21:8; 22:15).[46] Nevertheless, those who worship false gods are called to repentance (14:6–7). “Everywhere that εὐαγγέλιον is found in the NT, it implies the gracious offer of salvation.”[47] By worshiping created images the denizens of the earth were at risk of judgment, but they could be saved by instead worshiping the Creator.[48]

Those who do not turn from their idolatrous worship would be brought into direct animosity with God. This begins with the beast, whose blasphemous name leads to slanderous words against God, heaven, and those who live in heaven (13:1, 5–6; cf. 17:3). Those who follow the beast curse God’s name when disasters befall them (16:9, 11, 21). Blasphemies and curses turn into outright war as kings, the beast, and Satan all raise up armies to attack God and his people (17:14; 19:19; 20:8–9). This is the ultimate negative characterization. From a pious perspective, it is unthinkable to war openly against God. Additionally, the fate of those who wage such a war is put in no uncertain terms: “and fire came down from heaven and devoured them” (20:9). The reader would be strongly encouraged toward piety in order to avoid such a fate.

To this point Revelation is ethically similar to the other Jewish apocalypses surveyed above. There is an emphasis on piety, with idolatry discouraged. Through both characterization and direct exhortation the readers are told to persevere despite persecution. The special stress on cleanliness and purity sets Revelation apart from many apocalypses, although even this emphasis is not unique.[49]

2. Justice Toward Humanity

Like the apocalypses surveyed above, Revelation’s ethics extend to intra-human relations, although this category of ethics is not as clear or developed. From a positive perspective, the reader is told that the saints of God are those who “keep the commandments” (12:17; 14:12). John does not expound upon which commandments are meant, similar to the calls to keep the law in 4 Ezra.[50] The readers are also called to be wise (13:18; 17:9) and to remain clothed (16:15). The latter concern, along with the characterization of the 144,000 as virgins (14:4), could be seen to relate to the need for purity. If this were the case, it belongs with the other calls to piety. On the other hand, nakedness was a social shame that would impact the way in which a person was viewed by the community. Keeping the commandments, obtaining wisdom, and remaining clothed and sexually pure are all ambiguous with regard to whether they are calls to piety or righteous human relations.

More can be said with regard to Revelation’s negative characterization to encourage humanitarian behavior. In 11:2 the nations “trample the holy city for forty-two months.” This could be seen as an affront to God himself, who established the “holy city,” but it also speaks of oppression toward God’s people. This latter emphasis is highlighted a few verses later, when God’s prophets are attacked, killed, and their bodies publicly shamed (11:7–10). The people of the earth are judged for shedding the blood of the prophets and saints (16:6), as is the great prostitute (17:6; 18:24; 19:2). Persecution and oppression are therefore condemned.

Several vices are condemned in Revelation, with sexual immorality receiving the most attention. Three vice lists appear in the book.[51] In 9:21 the wicked are condemned for murder, magical practices, sexual immorality, and theft. The longest list comes in 21:8, which speaks of people who are cowardly, unbelieving, vile, murderers, sexually immoral, magical practitioners, idolaters, and liars. Finally, 22:15 says that those outside the great city will be dogs, magical practitioners, sexually immoral, murderers, idolaters, and lovers of falsehood. Murder, magic, and sexual immorality are the three vices condemned in all three lists. Of these three, sexual immorality and adultery are of the gravest concern for John, as they are mentioned in numerous other passages (2:14, 20, 22; 14:8; 17:2, 4–5; 18:3, 9; 19:2). Several of these passages connect sexual immorality to food sacrificed to idols (2:14, 20) or idolatrous worship (14:8–9), leaving open the possibility that spiritual unfaithfulness is in view.[52] Sexual immorality was often incorporated into idol worship, making the practice doubly abhorrent to God.[53] There is likely an intentional ambiguity regarding the concept of sexual immorality in Revelation—the wicked are unfaithful to God and humanity. With its vice lists, Revelation relies on a traditional Jewish concept of wickedness, with a focus on sexual immorality.

Finally, John negatively characterizes wealth and power. The Laodicean church is reprimanded because they have allowed wealth and comfort to bring them to a lukewarm state (3:17).[54] Twice the author portrays rulers and generals as powerless against the judgments of God (6:15; 19:18). Revelation 18 gives a lengthy condemnation of rulers and merchants. It should first be noted that the sins of these wealthy individuals derive from their sexual immorality with Babylon. Aune astutely observes that solely blaming the woman (Babylon) for sexual immorality makes little sense.[55] While he attributes this leap in logic to a patriarchal culture, it makes more sense to understand sexual immorality as referring to idolatry. Babylon is blamed for the immorality of the nations because she is the one who led them to worship idols.[56] Furthermore, we have already been told that commercial enterprise was contingent upon receiving the mark of the beast (13:17). As Beale says, “Economic security would be removed from Babylon’s subjects if they did not cooperate with her idolatry.”[57] Luxury is condemned first and foremost because it came in exchange for worshiping created things in lieu of the Creator.[58] This does not mean that subsequent sins are in any way pardoned.[59] The rulers and merchants are not only condemned for their relationship with Babylon, but also on account of their devotion to the luxuries they had acquired (18:3, 7, 9, 11–17, 19). This love of luxury led some merchants to profit even from slavery (18:13).[60] In Revelation, wealth leads to complacency and is often ill-gotten.

Whereas piety was encouraged with both positive exhortation and negative characterization, humanitarian ethics are almost exclusively taught via negative characterization. The few instances of positive exhortation discussed above are ambiguous regarding whether they encourage love for God or love for man. This suggests that the primary thrust of the ethical teaching in Revelation relates to piety and religious purity.

III. Summary

The final chapter of Revelation twice encourages the reader to “keep” (τηρέω) its words (22:7, 9). Fanning points out that the use of τηρέω here “is a reminder of the hortatory content of this entire book. Its intent is not simply to convey information about the future but to communicate moral demands to be obeyed in the present.”[61] When it comes to ethical teaching, Revelation puts a great deal of emphasis on religious purity and, compared with the other works, is less interested in human relationships. This focused perspective becomes more evident when we observe the way in which other Second Temple apocalyptic literature relates to ethics. First Enoch emphasizes the downfall of oppressive power, greed, and violence. Second Enoch is even stronger in its call to the reader to serve others. It is difficult to define the call to keep the Torah in 4 Ezra, but the book seems to be equally concerned with divine-human and human-human interactions. Apocalypse of Abraham shares Revelation’s concern about idolatry, but it also makes a point to condemn unrighteousness toward others. Revelation mentions atrocities humans commit against one another, but always in the context of idolatrous worship. For Revelation, proper living flows from proper worship. Only the Creator is worthy of worship, and only those who worship him will inherit the promised blessings. This conclusion bears implications for our understanding of the occasion for Revelation’s composition. The author was concerned about his readers turning to idolatry, whether because of outright persecution or cultural and social pressure. The promises of Revelation are not only to provide hope through difficult times, but also to assert that it is God who will ultimately conquer the world, not the idols of Rome.

Notes

1. John J. Collins, “Introduction: Towards the Morphology of a Genre,” Semeia 14 (1979): 9.
2. David Hellholm, “The Problem of Apocalyptic Genre and the Apocalypse of John,” Semeia 36 (1986): 27, proposed to rectify this lack with the following emendation to Collins’s definition: “intended for a group in crisis with the purpose of exhortation and/or consolation by means of divine authority.”
3. George Eldon Ladd, “Why Not Prophetic-Apocalyptic?,” JBL 76.3 (1957): 198, speaks of “ethical passivity” in Second Temple apocalyptic literature. Others argue for a predetermined worldview evident in these works, such that there is little readers could do to change their eternal fate. Cf. Greg Carey, Apocalyptic Literature in the New Testament, Core Biblical Studies (Nashville: Abingdon, 2016), 16; Paolo Sacchi, Jewish Apocalyptic and Its History, JSPSup 20 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1990), 111.
4. Richard A. Horsley, Revolt of the Scribes: Resistance and Apocalyptic Origins (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2010), 3, has argued specifically that apocalyptic works were written as resistance to imperial powers. John J. Collins, “Apocalypse and Empire,” SEÅ 76 (2011): 1–19, gives a fair overview of why apocalyptic literature generally involves more than simply anti-imperial rhetoric. For general arguments for the ethical nature of apocalyptic genre, see R. H. Charles, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1913), 2:ix–x; D. S. Russell, Divine Disclosure: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992), 111–12; Frederick J. Murphy, Apocalypticism in the Bible and Its World: A Comprehensive Introduction (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2012), 11; John Barton, “Ethics in Apocalyptic,” in Revealed Wisdom: Studies in Apocalyptic in Honour of Christopher Rowland, ed. John Ashton, Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity 88 (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 38, 49; John J. Collins, The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic Literature, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2016), 337. For the view that economic oppression is a major theme in the genre of apocalyptic literature, see Samuel L. Adams, Social and Economic Life in Second Temple Judea (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2014), 204; Dale C. Allison, “Apocalyptic Ethics and Behavior,” in The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature, ed. John J. Collins (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 300; John J. Collins, “Social Ethics in Apocalyptic Perspective: The Case of the Epistle of Enoch,” BR 64 (2019): 40.
5. Thomas J. Sappington, “The Factor of Function in Defining Jewish Apocalyptic Literature,” JSP 12 (1994): 105–11. Lou H. Silberman, “The Human Deed in a Time of Despair: The Ethics of Apocalyptic,” in Essays in Old Testament Ethics, ed. James L. Crenshaw and John T. Willis (New York: Ktav, 1974), 195, rightly points out that an understanding of the historical context of a given piece of apocalyptic literature will go far in explaining how and why an author uses paraenetic exhortation.
6. On the use of characterization and narrative for rhetorical effect, see David A. deSilva, Seeing Things John’s Way: The Rhetoric of the Book of Revelation (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2009), 285–312; Alexander Stewart, Soteriology as Motivation in the Apocalypse of John, Gorgias Biblical Studies 61 (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias, 2015), 148–75, 194–205.
7. For the seminal work cautioning against an overuse of ancient comparanda, see Samuel Sandmel, “Parallelomania,” JBL 81.1 (1962): 1–13. More recently, John S. Kloppenborg, “Disciplined Exaggeration: The Heuristics of Comparison in Biblical Studies,” NovT 59 (2017): 390–414, has argued against a one-sided approach that only selects sources that bolster one’s theological or academic presuppositions. In this article, I have attempted to avoid such self-fulfilling analyses by choosing for comparison four works that differ from one another in both form and date of composition. I thus attempt to gain a broad view of the genre.
8. Richard Bauckham, “Apocalypses,” in The Complexities of Second Temple Judaism, vol. 1 of Justification and Variegated Nomism, ed. D. A. Carson, Peter Thomas O’Brien, and Mark A. Seifrid (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001), 144.
9. Because of this passage, Bauckham, “Apocalypses,” 149, claims that “contrary to some caricatures of apocalyptic literature, the Enochic tradition retains the prophetic hope for the time when all the nations will acknowledge and worship the God of Israel.”
10. In discussing the sections of 1 Enoch, I follow the order as it appears in the Ethiopic version, understanding that this is likely not the order in which the various books were composed.
11. Ephraim Isaac, “1 (Ethiopic Apocalypse of) Enoch,” in OTP 1:9.
12. Collins, “Social Ethics in Apocalyptic Perspective,” 40, argues that while the form of the “Epistle” does not meet the criteria of the apocalyptic genre, it still clearly demonstrates an apocalyptic worldview.
13. Sappington, “Factor of Function,” 106.
14. Cf. Sappington, “Factor of Function,” 117.
15. Randal A. Argall, 1 Enoch and Sirach: A Comparative Literary and Conceptual Analysis of the Themes of Revelation, Creation, and Judgment, EJL 8 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995), 209, suggests that the first woes are more focused on “social” evils and the last on “religious” sins. This is not entirely accurate. As discussed above, both social and religious sins are mentioned throughout the woes, with social sins receiving most of the attention.
16. Mark D. Mathews, Riches, Poverty, and the Faithful: Perspectives on Wealth in the Second Temple Period and the Apocalypse of John, SNTSMS 154 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 139.
17. Francis I. Andersen, “2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch,” in OTP 1:91.
18. All quotations from 2 Enoch are taken from the shorter recension. Both the shorter and longer recensions show signs of editing, so it is unclear which is the more ancient. Nevertheless, the content in the shorter recension is nearly always included, if not expanded on, in the longer recension. By taking a minimalist approach I am citing places where both recensions agree.
19. Grant Macaskill, “Personal Salvation and Rigorous Obedience: The Soteriology of 2 Enoch,” in This World and the World to Come: Soteriology in Early Judaism, ed. Daniel M. Gurtner, LSTS 74 (London: T&T Clark, 2011), 134.
20. Contra Bauckham, “Apocalypses,” 151, who claims the notion of “encouragement and consolation for the faithful is largely missing” in 2 Enoch.
21. On the notion of non-retaliation in the face of violence in 2 Enoch, see Gordon M. Zerbe, Non-Retaliation in Early Jewish and New Testament Texts: Ethical Themes in Social Contexts, JSPSup 13 (Sheffield: JSOT, 1993), 161–64.
22. Andersen, “2 (Slavonic Apocalypse of) Enoch,” in OTP 1:96; cf. Macaskill, “Soteriology of 2 Enoch,” 135–36.
23. Jonathan Moo, “The Few Who Obtain Mercy: Soteriology in 4 Ezra,” in This World and the World to Come, 102.
24. Bauckham, “Apocalypses,” 166; cf. John M. G. Barclay, Paul and the Gift (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2017), 307.
25. Moo, “Soteriology in 4 Ezra,” 113.
26. Christoph Münchow, Ethik und Eschatologie: Ein Beitrag zum Verständnis der frühjüdischen Apokalyptik mit einem Ausblick auf das Neue Testament (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981), 92–94.
27. Ryszard Rubinkiewicz, “Apocalypse of Abraham,” in OTP 1:683.
28. Daniel C. Harlow, “Idolatry and Alterity: Israel and the Nations in the Apocalypse of Abraham,” in The “Other” in Second Temple Judaism: Essays in Honor of John J. Collins, ed. Daniel C. Harlow et al. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011), 306, shows the importance of this questioning by demonstrating how the first eight chapters form a chiasm, with satirical portrayals of idolatry interspersed with Abraham’s reflections.
29. In seeing a connection between seeking God and being chosen by God, I disagree somewhat with John C. Poirier, “On a Wing and a Prayer: The Soteriology of the Apocalypse of Abraham,” in This World and the World to Come, 93. Poirier emphasizes the election of Abraham, which then applies to Abraham’s seed. The first eight chapters of the work seem to be demonstrating Abraham’s righteousness as the basis for his election, with the implication that others could similarly seek and find God.
30. Given this apocalypse’s preoccupation with idols, Harlow, “Idolatry and Alterity,” 330, may be correct that the work was produced in a place where Jews were being pressured to make or worship idols. While a newly Hellenized Palestine makes for a compelling idea, the dearth of evidence renders any such hypothesis speculative.
31. Rubinkiewicz, “Apocalypse of Abraham,” in OTP 1:684.
32. Jürgen Kerner, Die Ethik der Johannes-Apokalypse im Vergleich mit der des 4. Esra: Ein Beitrag zum Verhältnis von Apokalyptik und Ethik, BZNW 94 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1998), 161: “Somit stellt sich die Ethik der Apokalypse im wesentlichen als eine von der Verfolgungssituation.”
33. Kerner, Der Ethik der Johannes-Apokalypse, 39–40, rightly points to the churches of Ephesus, Thyatira, and Philadelphia, who are praised for their ὑπομονή (“endurance”) in persecution. In using evidence from the letters to the seven churches, Kerner assumes that Revelation is a literary whole, composed by a single author—an assumption shared by this article. For arguments from a source-critical perspective against the compositional unity of Revelation, see David E. Aune, Revelation 1–5, WBC 52a (Dallas: Word, 1997), cv–cxxxiv.
34. Richard Bauckham, The Theology of the Book of Revelation, New Testament Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 15.
35. M. Eugene Boring, “The Theology of Revelation: ‘The Lord Our God the Almighty Reigns,’” Int 40 (1986): 269, says the call to worship God is “a representative summary of John’s theology.” Cf. John Paul Heil, The Book of Revelation: Worship for Life in the Spirit of Prophecy (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2014), 14.
36. Discussion continues with regard to the referent of the 144,000. For an extended argument that views the 144,000 symbolically, as representing the totality of all God’s people, see Beale, Book of Revelation, 416–23. For two different approaches to a more literal interpretation, see John F. Walvoord, The Revelation of Jesus Christ (Chicago: Moody, 1966), 141–43; Robert L. Thomas, Revelation 1–7: An Exegetical Commentary (Chicago: Moody, 1992), 475–78.
37. Worship of God and worship of the Lamb are used nearly interchangeably in Revelation. See Bauckham, Theology of the Book of Revelation, 60. Using Revelation 5 as an example, he shows that “worship of the Lamb (5:8–12) leads to the worship of God and the Lamb together (5:13).”
38. Ranko Stefanović, Revelation of Jesus Christ: Commentary on the Book of Revelation, 2nd ed. (Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press, 2009), 455.
39. Grant R. Osborne, Revelation, BECNT (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002), 543.
40. Regarding the definition of the saints in Rev 14:12, the genitive in the phrase τὴν πίστιν Ἰησοῦ is most likely an objective genitive. So David E. Aune, Revelation 6–16, WBC 52b (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 838; Osborne, Revelation, 544; Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation, rev. ed., NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), 275; contra Beale, Book of Revelation, 766, who prefers a genitive of source.
41. There has been much debate over the identity of the “Synagogue of Satan” in Rev 2:9. For a helpful overview, see Paul B. Duff, “The ‘Synagogue of Satan’: Crisis Mongering and the Apocalypse of John,” in The Reality of Apocalypse: Rhetoric and Politics in the Book of Revelation, ed. David L. Barr, SBL Symposium Series 39 (Atlanta: SBL, 2006), 151–55. For the more traditional view, which sees the “Synagogue” as Jews at odds with the Christian community, see Eduard Lohse, “Synagogue of Satan and Church of God: Jews and Christians in the Book of Revelation,” SEÅ 58 (1993): 105–23; Friedrich Wilhelm Horn, “Zwischen der Synagoge des Satans und dem neuen Jerusalem: Die christlich-jüdische Standortbestimmung in der Apokalypse des Johannes,” ZRGG 46 (1994): 143–62; Aune, Revelation 1–5, 163; Jan Lambrecht, “Jewish Slander: A Note on Revelation 2, 9–10, ” ETL 75 (1999): 421–29. Scholars who argue that the “Synagogue” refers to members within the church community include Heinrich Kraft, Die Offenbarung des Johannes, HNT 16a (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1974), 60–61; Wolfgang Schrage, “Meditation zu Offenbarung 2:8–11, ” EvT 48 (1988): 390–91; David Frankfurter, “Jews or Not? Reconstructing the ‘Other’ in Rev 2:9 and 3:9, ” HTR 94 (2001): 403–25; John W. Marshall, Parables of War: Reading John’s Jewish Apocalypse, Studies in Christianity and Judaism 10 (Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2001), 124–34. Although I take the traditional view, the other option would not significantly alter my argument.
42. For overviews on Jewish views of purity, see David A. deSilva, Honor, Patronage, Kinship and Purity: Unlocking New Testament Culture (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 241–77; Jodi Magness, Stone and Dung, Oil and Spit: Jewish Daily Life in the Time of Jesus (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011), 16–31. On the purity ethic of Revelation, see Eckhard J. Schnabel, “Christians, Jews, and Pagans in the Book of Revelation: Persecution, Perseverance, and Purity in the Shadow of the Last Judgment,” in Jesus, Paul, and the Early Church: Missionary Realities in Historical Contexts: Collected Essays, WUNT 406 (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2018), 373–75; and especially Frankfurter, “Jews or Not?,” 414–22, who argues that, in the eyes of John, purity is the key marker of God’s people. He goes too far, however, in claiming that John is specifically arguing against Christians who are not strict enough in obeying the Torah’s purity constraints. There is simply not enough specificity in the calls for purity to make such a claim of Revelation.
43. Little can be said definitively about the Nicolaitans. For a good overview of what is known, see Aune, Revelation 1–5, 148–49.
44. Osborne, Revelation, 155, connects this prophetess with the Nicolaitans because of their similar tendency toward syncretism.
45. Buist M. Fanning, Revelation, ZECNT (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2020), 150.
46. On Revelation’s use of threats as a feature of Graeco-Roman rhetoric, see Alexander E. Stewart, “Argumentum ad baculum in the Apocalypse of John: Toward an Evaluation of John’s Use of Threats,” in New Perspectives on the Book of Revelation, ed. Adela Yarbro Collins, BETL 291 (Leuven: Peeters, 2017), 466–71.
47. Osborne, Revelation, 535; cf. Aune, Revelation 6–16, 827, who points out that in the OT, it is God’s faithful people who are described as “fearing God.” This would indicate a call to genuine conversion. Contra Beale, Book of Revelation, 751–53, who cites LXX Dan 4 to suggest that the command is not for conversion, but for a forced acknowledgment of God’s supremacy.
48. Cf. Craig R. Koester, Revelation: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, Anchor Yale Bible 38a (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014), 612.
49. The connection between purity and apocalypse is most evident among the Dead Sea Scrolls. For an overview of the apocalyptic worldview of these documents, see John J. Collins, Apocalypticism in the Dead Sea Scrolls (London: Routledge, 1997); Albert L. A. Hogeterp, Expectations of the End: A Comparative Traditio-Historical Study of Eschatological, Apocalyptic, and Messianic Ideas in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament, STDJ 83 (Leiden: Brill, 2009). On the similarities and possible connections between the Dead Sea Scrolls and Revelation, see H. Braun, Qumran und das Neue Testament (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1966), 307–25; O. Böcher, “Die Johannes-Apokalypse und die Texte von Qumran,” in ANRW 25.5: 3894–98; Torleif Elgvin, “Priests on Earth as in Heaven: Jewish Light on the Book of Revelation,” in Echoes from the Caves: Qumran and the New Testament, ed. Florentino García Martínez, Peter W. Flint, and Eibert J. C. Tigchelaar, STDJ 85 (Leiden: Brill, 2009), 257–78; Benjamin G. Wold, “Revelation’s Plague Septets: New Exodus and Exile,” in Echoes from the Caves, 279–98.
50. Aune, Revelation 6–16, 711–12, argues in the context of Rev 12:17 that “the commandments of God” refers to the “second table of the Decalogue plus the love command.” Later, he appears to apply the same conclusion to 14:12, although he is unclear (p. 837). The contexts of chs. 12 and 14 have to do with a war between Satan and Michael and the choice between worshiping God and the beast, respectively. This inclines me to think that the emphasis should be put on the first table of the Decalogue, rather than the second.
51. For an overview of the vice list genre in the NT epistles, see Eduard Schweizer, “Traditional Ethical Patterns in the Pauline and Post-Pauline Letters and Their Development (Lists of Vices and House-Tables),” in Text and Interpretation: Studies in the New Testament Presented to Matthew Black, ed. Ernest Best and R. McL. Wilson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 195–210. For an overview of the genre outside of Paul, see René A. López, “Vice Lists in Non-Pauline Sources,” BSac 168 (2011): 178–95.
52. Beale, Book of Revelation, 739, connects the concept of virginity with OT passages that describe Israel as a virgin bride (2 Kgs 19:21; Isa 37:22; Jer 14:17; 18:13; Lam 1:15; 2:13; Amos 5:2; and especially Jer 31:4–21). Cf. Fanning, Revelation, 140.
53. Mounce, Book of Revelation, 87, argues that if idolatry is taken in a literal sense, so too should sexual immorality: “Pagan feasts often led to sexual promiscuity.”
54. Mathews, Riches, Poverty, and the Faithful, 161–63, suggests that the lukewarmness of the Laodicean church comes from the fact that they confess Christ (good) but are rich (bad), breaking the dichotomy between righteous poor and wicked rich.
55. David E. Aune, Revelation 17–22, WBC 52C (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1998), 987–88.
56. For the identification of sexual immorality with idolatry in ch. 18, see Aune, Revelation 17–22, 988; Beale, Book of Revelation, 895; Fanning, Revelation, 458; Osborne, Revelation, 637.
57. Beale, Book of Revelation, 896.
58. Pierre Prigent, L’Apocalypse de Saint Jean, 3rd ed., CNT 14 (Geneva: Labor et Fides, 2000), 389.
59. In this sense Iain Provan, “Foul Spirits, Fornication, and Finance: Revelation 17 from an Old Testament Perspective,” JSNT 64 (1996): 88, overstates the point when he says, “Economic sins are only ever a function of idolatry, so far as the Old Testament is concerned, and it is on the idolatry that the emphasis falls, rather than upon the economics.” See the discussion in Fanning, Revelation, 458.
60. Murray Vasser, “Bodies and Souls: The Case for Reading Revelation 18.13 as a Critique of the Slave Trade,” NTS 64 (2018): 397–409, is likely correct that the peculiar phrase σωμάτων καὶ ψυχὰς ἀνθρώπων was used to give a negative characterization to the practice of profiting off slavery.
61. Fanning, Revelation, 558; cf. Koester, Revelation, 839.