“That They May All Fear Me”: Interpreting And Preaching Hebrew Wisdom

By Daniel I. Block

[Daniel I. Block is Gunther H. Knoedler Professor of Old Testament at Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois.]

For those of us who are committed to preaching “the whole counsel of God” (Acts 20:27) the “wisdom literature” of the First Testament poses special problems. By “wisdom literature” scholars generally mean the books of Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, the Song of Songs, and a few Psalms.[1] How shall we understand the apparent secularity of many wisdom texts? Why are they so oblivious to the basic redemptive story line of the Bible? Wherein does their authority lie? How shall I interpret the strange figures of speech? How do I account for their resemblances to extra-biblical writings? Questions like these present unique challenges for preaching from these texts. They can only be answered by taking a closer look at how biblical wisdom works and what it pedagogical and rhetorical goals are.

The Distinctive Linguistic Features Of Wisdom Writings

While there are questions whether there ever was “wisdom movement” in ancient Israel, texts identified as “wisdom” tend to be characterized by a distinctive vocabulary that focuses on knowledge and the wise application of that knowledge. Proverbs 1:1–6 introduces us to a host of these:

1. The proverbs of Solomon son of David, king of Israel:
2. For gaining wisdom (ḥokmâ) and being instructed (mûsār); for understanding insightful sayings (ʾimrê bînâ);
3. for receiving wise instruction (mûsar haškēl) righteousness, justice, and integrity;
4. for teaching shrewdness (ʿormâ) to the inexperienced, knowledge (daʿat) and discretion (mĕzimmâ) to a young man—
5. a wise man (ḥākām) will listen and increase his learning (leqaḥ), and a discerning man (nābôn) will obtain guidance (taḥbūlôt)—
6. for understanding (hēbîn) a proverb (māšāl) or a parable (mĕlîṣâ), the words of the wise (dibrê ḥăkāmîm), and their riddles (ḥîdôt).

Of all the expressions concentrated in this text, “wisdom” (ḥokmâ) deserves a brief comment. The verb, ḥākam, “to be wise occurs 26 times in the Hebrew Bible, and the adjective/noun, ḥākām, “wise, wise person,” occurs 135 times, though to this number we should add the Aramaic counterpart ḥakkîn, “wise men,” which occurs 14 times in the Aramaic of Daniel, and refers to the college of magicians and soothsayers to whom people go for the interpretation of dreams. The abstract noun, ḥokmâ, “wisdom,” occurs 151 times (4 of which are plural).

However, this is an interesting word with a considerable range of meanings (Fig. 1)

1. Skill In A Craft

Fundamentally ḥokmâ, “wisdom,” denotes the skill of an artisan. The range of application is wide: skill in a craft (Bezalel, Exod 35:10; 30–35); metal working talent (2 Kgs 7:14, brass; Jer 10:9, gold); expertise in lamenting (Jer 9:17); dream interpretation, professionals skilled in the reading of the signs and in the manipulation of deity. (Gen 41:8; Exod 7:11; Isa 44:25; 47:9–12; Esth 1:3).

2. Intelligence, Shrewdness

These appear in several sub-types, positive academic wisdom, and negative scheming, cunning. First Kings 4:29–34 [Heb 5:9–14] presents Solomon as a master of the first kind, which he demonstrated by organizing observable data of the world in lists and categories (cf. Prov 30:15–33). His opposite is a stupid person, who is like the ostrich in Job 39:15, 17. The second kind of wisdom is represented by Pharaoh who plotted to get rid of the Hebrew children (Exod 1:10), and David, with his counsel to Solomon to plot the death of Joab (1 Kgs 2:6, 9).

3. Good Sense, Moral Understanding

At this level ḥokmâ, “wisdom,” refers to the ability to apply knowledge prudently to life. Compare the lesson from the ant (Prov 6:6), and the lesson from the helmsman (Prov 1:5; 11:14). Wise persons are able to navigate their way through life to desired and proper goals. Prudence is knowledge that works, that brings success to an enterprise, whether in short or long range terms. This is life controlled by the application of wise principles (Prov 2:2).

4. Understanding The Fundamental Issues Of Life

It takes more than knowledge or even good sense to respond to the deep issues of life wisely. Wise persons are not always able to answer “why?” questions to life’s perplexities, but because they fear YHWH they trust him to sustain them and the universe.[2] They grasp that the essence of wisdom is theological, and that YHWH is the source and goal of wisdom (cf. Job 28). Anyone who denies the divine in general and YHWH in particular is a fool (Ps 14:1; 53:1). This perspective not only helps the wise navigate through the difficulties of difficulties in life, but it aids them in accepting the divine definition of “profit” (yitrôn). They recognize that the world was created as an ordered world, and that the wise person seeks to live within that order. However, “under the sun” human experience is not always ordered. Nevertheless, in the face of apparent vanities and absurdities, they receive life itself as a gift from God and with gratitude enjoy its blessings (Ecclesiastes).

The Distinctive Conceptual Features Of Hebrew Wisdom Literature

These lexical considerations raise the question whether the ancient Hebrews recognized a distinctive genre of wisdom writing, and even if there ever was a “wisdom movement” in Israel, led by a distinct professional class of educated folk that self-consciously produced what we have come to know as the “wisdom writings.” Probably not, since elements that we have come to associate with the “wisdom movement” are found in all parts of the Hebrew canon and in all genres of biblical writings. At best we may speak of “an intellectual tradition” whose literary products display some coherence in aims, methodology, vocabulary, forms, and content. For the sake of convenience we may refer to persons engaged in this sort of enterprise as a sage—whether or not he/she claimed the title or others recognized him/her as such).

Jeremiah 18:18 suggests that in the seventh–sixth centuries BCE Israelites distinguished three types of officials, whose differences are highlighted as Table 1:

Table 1: Who Speaks for God?  The Classes of Leaders in Ancient Israel according to Jeremiah 18:18
	Priest	Prophet	Sage
Basis of Authority	Inheritance in YHWH’s Covenant with Levi	A personal and direct call of God	Popularly/officially recognized common sense, practical wisdom
Source of Information	The Torah of Moses	Direct revelation from God	The world out there: observation, experience, tradition
Scope	Israel: ethnocentric	Primarily Israel: ethnocentric	The world: universal
Addressee	Israel: the covenant community	Israel: the Nation and its leaders	The individual
Message	Instruction in the Torah of Moses	Proclamation to return to and live by the Torah of Moses	Counsel on prudent living

We may summarize the method and goals of the sage as follows:

1. The source of information is the world out there.
2. The scope is universalistic. The wisdom writings do not address Israel as a nation. The closest they come is the occasional use of the divine name YHWH. Otherwise they deal with issues that are common to all people.
3. The emphasis is on the personal, practical well-being of the individual. Almost nothing is said of institutional religion.
4. The audience is the individual. Even then, a book like Proverbs has a particular individual in mind. “My son” is a young man preparing for responsible adulthood in the court or in the counsel of elders.

In contrast to the Torah and the prophetic writings, on the surface wisdom literature appears to be relatively secular. There are no appeals to special divine revelation, no grounding of ethic in gratitude for YHWH’s rescue from slavery or in the covenant he established with them at Sinai (Exod 20–24) and confirmed on the Plains of Moab (Deuteronomy), indeed no overt call for covenantal fidelity. The source of sages’ information is general revelation, the world of nature and experience. The amount of God-talk is diminished and generally restricted to general adherence to the divine order built into the universe. This means that the perspective is not actually secular—there were no secularists in the ancient world! Actually, the sage makes four important assumptions concerning the universe.

(a) The universe is ordered and life proceeds according to a fixed order. 

(b) This order is learnable and teachable. 

(c) By learning the order in the universe the individual is handed an instrument with which to determine and secure his/her way through life. 

(d) The source and foundation of the order in the universe is God himself.

Wise persons stand back and observe and listen to life as it unfolds around them, both in human experience and in the phenomena of nature. Based on their observations, they draw conclusions about the order in life. By definition wise persons recognize that order and arrange their lives accordingly—which explains why they prosper, that is, they succeed in the tasks to which they set their mind and hands. On the other hand, fools are unconcerned about that order and therefore have no interest in modifying their lives in accordance with that order—which explains why their lives are chaotic and futile.

However, it would be a mistake to understand the diminished grounding of ethic on the covenant as atheistic or even deistic. Israelite and ancient non-Israelites all viewed life from theological perspectives. This perspective is reflected in the watchword of Hebrew wisdom:

The fear of YHWH is the first principle of knowledge (daʿat);
fools despise wisdom (ḥokmâ) and discipline (mûsār).

Variations of this theme occur in Job 28:28; Ps 111:10; Prov 1:7; 9:10; 15:33. This motto contains in a nutshell Israelite theory of knowledge. But what is this “fear of YHWH”? The Hebrew word, yārēʾ is capable of a wide range of meanings: “fright, dread, reverence, trusting awe.” Indeed, it is not only occasionally associated directly either with heʾĕmîn (“to believe,” Exod 14:31) or bāṭaḥ (“to trust”), but may actually substitute for these words. In Gen 22 YHWH tested the faith of Abraham by demanding that he sacrifice Isaac (v. 1), but when the divine envoy assessed Abraham’s response he declared, “Now I know that you fear (yārēʾ) God, seeing you have not withheld your son, your only son, from me” (v. 12). Here the word means something like “trusting awe” or “awed trust.”

Deuteronomy reinforces this interpretation in two ways. First, in 10:12–13, in catechetical form Moses asks an extremely important question: “And now, Israel, what does YHWH your God require of you.” He follows this up with a fivefold answer (one item for each finger on one’s hand (Fig. 1):[3]

To fear YHWH your God, to walk in all his ways, to love him, to serve YHWH your God with all your heart and all your being, and to keep YHWH’s commands and statutes which I am commanding you today, for your own good.

Figure 1: The Dimensions of Devotion Deuteronomy 10:12–13

Notice that fearing YHWH comes first. Indeed, this deuteronomic statement may underlie the sage’s conviction that the fear of YHWH is the first principle of wisdom.

Second, the critical role of the fear of YHWH is reinforced by repeated declarations of the importance of hearing the Torah (Table 2). We may summarize the Deuteronomic formula as follows:

Table 2: The Importance of Hearing the Torah
Reference	Reading	Hearing	Learning	Fearing	Obeying	Living well
1. 4:10		X	X	X
2. 5:23–29		X		X	X	X
3. 6:1–3			X	X	X	X
4. 17:13		X		X	X
5. 17:19–20	X	[X]	X	X	X	X
6. 19:20		X		X	X
7. 31:11–13	X	X	X	X	X	[X]

“Read that they may hear, that they may learn, that they may fear, that they may obey, that they may live” (cf. Fig. 2).

Figure 2: The Deuteronomic Formula for Life

It is assumed that hearing the Torah will result in “trusting awe” of YHWH, which will lead to obedience, which will be rewarded with life (i.e., YHWH’s full blessing). This link between the fear of YHWH and obedience is recognized in the later prophets. See, for example, Isa 50:10: “Who among you fears YHWH and obeys the voice of his servant? Let those who walk in darkness and have no light trust in the name of YHWH and rely on his God.” This link between fear (trusting awe), ethical living, and life/blessing appears repeatedly in the wisdom literature, especially Proverbs:

3:7	Be not wise in your own eyes; fear YHWH, and turn away from evil.
8:13	The fear of YHWH is hatred of evil. Pride and arrogance and the way of evil and perverted speech I hate.
10:27	The fear of YHWH prolongs life, but the years of the wicked will be short.
14:2	Whoever walks in uprightness fears YHWH, but he who is devious in his ways despises him.
14:27	The fear of YHWH is a fountain of life, that one may turn away from the snares of death.
28:14	Blessed is the one who fears YHWH always, but whoever hardens his heart will fall into calamity.[4]

 Contrary to the common view, Hebrew wisdom was far from secular. Although Israel’s traditions of rescue from Egypt, the covenant ratified at Sinai and confirmed on the Plains of Moab, the desert wanderings, and the gift of the Promised Land are never mentioned, the theology of Moses as expounded in Deuteronomy underlies everything, even the book of Qoheleth, which otherwise sounds so cynical of the established order assumed by the sages (Qoh 12:13).[5] Furthermore, while sages paid close attention to the world out there and drew many lessons from their own experiences, they would have been appalled at the suggestion that faith hinders the pursuit of knowledge. On the contrary, faith liberates it. Faith enables our investigations to arrive at the intended point and indicates its proper place in life. A faith commitment to the God of Israel who has revealed himself through particular saving acts is a given in the wisdom writings. It is a prerequisite to seeing reality as it truly is and to order one’s life accordingly. Wisdom stands or falls according to the right attitude of person to God. One who is wise recognizes that tradition, experience and observation can lead to erroneous conclusions if we make a mistake at the beginning.

However, this does not mean that apart from the fear of YHWH no one may arrive at any correct conclusions. Humans are rational, and the universe is ordered. By common grace, God enables even people who lack faith to recognize some of that order. Nevertheless, it is the recognition of God in life that lends authority to the sage. All the lessons of experience and nature are passed through the filter of Yahwistic faith. In short, the wise person proceeds on the basis of a sanctified common sense: Prov 16:2, 9; 19:21; 20:24; 21:2.

The Themes And Genres Of Israelite Wisdom

While some of these have already been touched upon, it may be helpful at this point to review some of the motifs that keep recurring in the wisdom writings of the Old Testament. These have an important bearing on our understanding of the relationship between Hebrew wisdom and theology. In Proverbs (and Ben Sirach [Ecclesiasticus]), which for the most part represents normative “wisdom,” these themes tend to be reinforced; in Ecclesiastes and Job, many of these are challenged.[6]

1. The divinely ordained ordered nature of the universe. This notion, reflected in the “Creation Odes” in Proverbs (e.g., 8:22–31), provides the basis for the “first principle of wisdom”: “the fear of YHWH.”
2. The ambiguity of events and the meaning of life. While one may recognize in principle the order in the universe, it is not always easy to see that order played out in human experience. Thus tension may exist between “the fear of God” and “the knowledge of God.”
3. The correlation between human behavior on the one hand and punishment and reward on the other. The theological “deuteronomic principle” that obedience yields blessing and dis-obedience results in the curse underlies the emphasis on retribution found in many wisdom texts, but it is often presented in pragmatic and secular terms.
4. The supreme value of life. “Life,” defined as “long existence characterized by good health, many friends, children, a good reputation, possessions, and wisdom, is presupposed in texts like Prov 3:9–18.
5. The reliability of wisdom. While wisdom is difficult to acquire/find (Job 28), its acquisition is not only open to all, but when it is found it will provide a sure guide for life.
6. The personification of Wisdom (and Folly). This theme begins in a small way in Proverbs (1:20–33; 3:13–18; 3:19–20; 8:1–36; 9:1–18) but it comes to full bloom in the deuterocanonical (Apocryphal) Wisdom of Solomon. By the time this book was written it pervaded all of wisdom thinking.

The biblical wisdom texts develop the themes identified above through a wide variety of genres. The following represents a summary of their characteristic features and locations.

Simple Sayings (Proverbs, mĕšālîm). The proverb represents Hebrew wisdom at its basic level. A proverb (māšāl) may be defined as “a short pithy statement in common use.” Proverbs are often colorful word pictures designed to teach a lesson. Proverbial material appears frequently in the Old Testament outside the wisdom writings,[7] but hundreds of short proverbs are gathered in Proverbs 10–29. These short wisdom statements arise out of everyday experiences of life, both of the common folk and of the royal courtiers.

Numerical Sayings. The counting and listing of items reflects a combination of the sage’s concern for order and his/her interest in nature. In the formula “X, indeed X+1, ” the last item always represents the center of gravity. For examples, see Prov 6:16–19; 30:11–33.

Autobiographical Stylization. The wise persons’ perceptions are cast as first person discoveries, rather than universal abstractions. For examples, see Prov 24:30–34; Ps 37:25, 35–36; Job 4:8; Ecclesiastes.

Long Didactic Poems. These are often introduced with something like “My son,” or “I will tell you.” In the case of the former, the wise man (the teacher) is portrayed as a father exhorting his son (the pupil) to pay attention to the speech that follows. Ten of these lectures are preserved in Proverbs 1–9: 1:8–19; 2:1–22; 3:1–12; 3:21–35; 4:1–9; 4:10–19; 4:20–27; 5:1–23; 6:20–35; 7:1–27. These didactic poems are cast as second person commands. Their aim is to persuade the young to adopt a certain style of life.

Beattitudinal Poems. Some wisdom texts begin with ʾašrê . . . , “Oh the privilege . . . .” or “O the joy . . . .” These occur not only in the First Testament (Prov 3:13–20; Pss 1, 32, 34:8, 112, 128), but are also found in the New Testament. In Jesus’s Sermon on the Mount he speaks as the Wise God (Matt 5:3–12).

Dialogue. Some wisdom writings are cast as dramas, involving several characters who alternate speeches as they wrestle with difficult problems (Job) or celebrate the joy of human experience (Song of Songs).

Fable. Fables do not necessarily pursue moral goals, but they attempt simply to represent a truth which is typical. They operate on the assumption that strange dress renders a truth more forceful. Some of these are embedded in biblical texts outside those we classify as wisdom literature (Judg 9:8–18; 2 Sam 12:1–4; 2 Kgs 14:9; Ezekiel 17; 19).

Allegory. Allegories involve stories or descriptions in which the individual elements stand for something else. Qoheleth 12:1–6 is the finest example in Scripture, but see also Ezekiel 27.

Didactic Narrative. Since the goal of some wisdom texts (most notably Proverbs) is to train a young man for responsible life in the court, we should not be surprised if some have interpreted some of the courtly narratives in Scripture as wisdom. Some would treat the Joseph story as a lengthy essay on wisdom. Joseph is an ideal person, a wise man of the court, living in a foreign environment and subjected to temptations of all kind. Nevertheless he manages to order his life on the basis of the fear of YHWH and eventually makes his way to the top. The stories of Daniel and Esther may be understood similarly. However, caution is advised against treating these as wisdom writings in the technical sense. The primary agenda in each lies elsewhere.

The Relationship Between Hebrew Wisdom And International Wisdom

Several First Testament writers allude to international wisdom. First Kgs 4:30 refers to the wisdom of the east and of Egypt, which seems to refer to clan and court wisdom respectively. Jeremiah 49:7 mentions Edomite wisdom. Job and his three “friends,” who represent wise men, are all portrayed as non-Israelites, easterners. This biblical awareness of wise persons outside Israel is confirmed by extra-biblical writings. For virtually every genre of Israelite wisdom we may find counterparts in the literature of other ancient peoples (Table 3). The connection between Israelite and extra-Israelite wisdom is not clear. In some instances the Israelite material seems to have been influenced by the foreign literature (e.g., Amenemope and Proverbs 22:17–24:22). Solomon’s interest in wisdom and the cosmopolitan atmosphere of his court suggest that during his reign this interest in foreign literature may have been fostered, along with other forms of art. On the other hand, since interaction between these cultures was a fact of life, and since this literature reflects the experiences of “every person” the influence should not be restricted to the Solomonic era, nor should the influence be viewed as having been unidirectional. At the same time, since wisdom texts are often cast in garb that seems strange to modern western readers, having read other similar texts from that world helps us understand some of its bizarre features.

Table 3: Wisdom Texts in Extra-biblical Literature
Category	First Testament	Extra-biblical Analogue	Reference
Proverbial	Proverbs	Instruction of Vizier Ptah-hotep	ANET, 412–14
		Instruction of Meri-ka-Re	ANET, 414–18
		Instruction of Amen-em-het	ANET, 418–19
		Instruction of Ani	ANET, 420–21
		Instruction of Amen-em-opet	ANET, 421–25
		Akkadian Proverbs and Counsels	ANET, 593–94
		Counsels of Wisdom	ANET, 595–96
		The Words of Ahiqar	ANET, 427–30
Reflective	Qoheleth	The Dialogue of Pessimism	ANET, 600–1
		A Dispute Over Suicide	ANET, 405–7
		Protests of the Eloquent Peasant	ANET, 407–10
		A Dialogue About Human Misery	ANET, 438–40
Theodical	Job	“I Will Praise YHWH of Wisdom”	ANET, 596–600
		The Babylonian Theodicy	ANET, 601–4
Love Poems	Song of Songs 8, 9	Dumuzi and Inanna Love Lyrics	ANET, 637–45
		Egyptian Love Songs	M. Fox, Song of Songs, 3–81

Practical Counsel On Preaching From First Testament Wisdom Texts

Having explored the nature and goals of Israelite wisdom literature, I conclude this essay with some practical tips on preaching from these parts of the First Testament.

First, select a text that is coherent in its structure and its development of a theme. Like most of the Scriptures, for the most part, the wisdom texts were written to be read as entire compositions. However, an expository series will usually seek to work through the texts one pericope at a time.

Second, observe the literary contexts in which the texts occur, and interpret them within that context. The only place where this might be of less significance is in sections of Proverbs 10–24, where a topical approach may be justified.[10]

Third, pay close attention to the poetic features of the text, including the use of parallelism, figures of speech, humor, etc. Delight in the literary artistry and creativity of the author. Let yourself be entertained by the texts, and invite your audience to enjoy them.

Fourth, observe the literary form, reflect on the basis (authority) of the statement, and identify the purpose of the text: instruction, reflection, admonition, or entertainment.

Fifth, note the rhetorical devices employed by the speaker/author. What strategies are used to encourage the reader/pupil to be wise?

Sixth, note whether the statement is intended by the author as reflective of normative First Testament theology, or is the sage challenging facile and simplistic approaches to life. The pictures of life presented by Proverbs (which assumes the order in the universe and assumes that happiness within that order is achievable) and Qoheleth (which expresses intense frustration with the elusiveness of happiness) are quite different.

Seventh, compare the style, forms, and values of biblical wisdom texts with extra-biblical analogues. Introduce your congregation to these extra-biblical texts. The Scriptures were not written in a cultural vacuum. Access to extra-biblical analogues hels us understand why the texts were written the way they were written.

Eighth, interpret biblical wisdom in the light of its fundamental theological tenets: (a) the fear of YHWH is the first principle of wisdom; (b) observation of the universe and human experience yields knowledge that is true and lessons that must be applied in daily life; (c) The universe is fundamentally ordered, and the wise person will get in step with that order. When we preach First Testament wisdom texts it is liberating to know that all truth is God’s truth. While the sages may rely heavily on personal observation and experience for their conclusions, when interpreted through the filter of faith, the results will always square with divinely revealed truth. Contrary to what many scholars do, it is a mistake to interpret Israelite wisdom texts in isolation form the record of divine revelation, whether that revelation came in the form of YHWH’s magnificent saving acts (as at the exodus) or in the form of propositional truth (as revealed at Sinai or through his inspired prophets). Anyone who disconnects these two is a fool.

Ninth, recognize that in the incarnation, the God who created this world became flesh and dwelt among us, full of grace and truth. Jesus Christ is therefore not only the embodiment of pure divine wisdom; he is the Source of all the wisdom that we may gain in observing the world that he has created. I am cautious about moving too quickly to treating “Wisdom,” which is often personified in Proverbs, christologically. In keeping with the gender of the Hebrew word, ḥokmâ, Wisdom is always portrayed as female. Furthermore, this personification is a playful literary and rhetorical feature. The author of Proverbs did not want us to imagine any real person behind the figure of speech. Her presence in the text constitutes an invitation to all to abandon their independent and geocentric thinking, to give thanks to God for the gift of Wisdom, and to learn all we can from “her” for the nurture of our own spiritual lives and the glory of God.

Notes

1. 1, 25, 32, 34, 37, 49, 73, 111, 112, 127, and 128 are often cited.
2. Job is the prime example. The prologue characterizes him as “God-fearer” (yĕrēʾ ʾĕlōhîm) YHWH (1:1, 8), though he was deeply troubled by his own disasters. In the end, YHWH did not answer all his questions, but he had learned that God is absolutely reliable and in control of his creation.
3. Compare the Decalogue, which consists of ten principles of covenant relationship, one for each digit on both hands.
4. Cf. also 1:7, 29; 2:5; 9:10; 14:26; 15:16; 24:21; 31:30; 1:7.
5. This interpretation is reinforced when we observe the pervasive presence of other theologically loaded Deuteronomic expressions in the wisdom literature, which include words like “abomination” (tôʿēbā), “righteousness” (ṣĕdāqa̦/ṣedeq), and concepts like “trust/believe” (bāṭaḥ/heʾĕmîn). See concordances. For a list of expressions common to Deuteronomy and the wisdom literature, see Moshe Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomic School (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1992), 362-63. Weinfeld mistakenly argues that the wisdom movement influenced Deuteronomy, rather than the reverse.
6. Cf. Katherine J. Dell, The Book of Job as Skeptical Literature, BZAW 197 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1991), 75-83.
7. Gen 10:9; 1 Sam 10:12; 1 Sam 24:14; 2 Sam 5:8; Jer 23:28; Ezek 12:22; 16:44; 18:2.
8. ANET is the acronym for Ancient Near Eastern Texts Related to the Old Testament, ed. James B. Pritchard, 3rd ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969). Other anthologies are also available.
9. Michael Fox, The Song of Songs and the Ancient Egyptian Love Songs (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985).
10. However, for a recent attempt at interpreting these sayings in context see Knut Heim, Like Grapes of Gold Set in Silver: An Interpretation of Proverbial Clusters in Proverbs 10:1-22:16 (BZAW 273; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2001).