During the tumultuous period when the western Roman Empire fell apart, and when political domination was assumed by the Germanic peoples, the more important theological questions got less and less attention from the leaders of the church. Nevertheless, the foundation of the later scholastic theology, as well as of medieval culture in general, was laid during this time. An important contribution was made by those who acted to preserve the heritage of antiquity for the medieval period that was coming into being.
Among these was Boethius, a Christian philosopher and an official under Emperor Theodoric. Accused of having connections with the Eastern Roman Empire, Boethius was arrested and finally executed in Pavia in 525. He is remembered as both the “last Roman” and the “first scholastic.” Through his own writings, as well as by his translations of Aristotle’s books on logic, he transmitted the knowledge of Aristotelian logic to the Middle Ages. His scientific system also served as a prototype for medieval university education.
The writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite also belong to this period. In four treatises entitled The Divine Name, The Heavenly Hierarchy, The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, and The Mystical Theology he set forth a world system based on Neoplatonic patterns. He dealt here, among other things, with the angels, whom he divided into nine choruses, each in its turn divided into three triads. In the two latter treatises Dionysius presented his views on the sacraments and offices of the church, as well as on the soul’s way of salvation according to the postulates of mysticism. These writings plus 10 letters by the same author falsely claimed to be the work of Paul’s disciple Dionysius. The prolonged discussion of the origins of these writings was finally settled at the end of the last century, when it was demonstrated that parts of these writings were based on the work of Proclus (d. 485), a Neoplatonic philosopher. Inasmuch as they were quoted by theologians in the second decade of the sixth century, they can be dated somewhere between 485 and 515. They were probably written in Syria. And even though the subject matter involved lies on the periphery of theology, these writings played an important role throughout the Middle Ages. Knowledge of the world view and the religious system of Neoplatonism was transmitted to medieval Europe via these writings. These “pseudo-Dionysian” writings were translated into Latin by the philosopher John Scotus Erigena.
Cassiodorus (died ca. 583), like Boethius a statesman in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, made his reputation as a collector and encyclopedist. A contemporary whose name is associated not so much with the history of dogma as with general church history was Benedict of Nursia (d. 547), the famous monk whose monastic rule dominated Western cloisters until the 12th century. By virtue of his recommendations about study and writing in the monasteries, Benedict made an outstanding contribution to the enrichment of spiritual life during the Middle Ages.
Isidore of Seville appeared somewhat later (d. 636), but more than anyone else he collected the scientific and theological knowledge of that era and made it accessible for coming generations.
In a time of serious religious decline and material need, a former municipal prefect and monk (in Rome) was elected pope in 590. His name was Gregory. This is his own description of the church he was chosen to lead: “It is an old ship, hard beset by the waves, pressed about on all sides by heavy seas; the screeching of the rotting planks warns us of shipwreck ahead” (Epistle I, 4). In the history of dogma the pontificate of Gregory is usually considered the dividing line between the early church and the Middle Ages. The foundation of the medieval papacy was laid to a large extent during the years of his powerful reign. But Gregory’s contributions were of fundamental significance in the field of theology as well.
Gregory accepted Augustine’s doctrine of grace, in a simplified and unsophisticated form, and he passed this on to the Middle Ages. He taught that God’s love and grace precede man. Merit does not precede grace, inasmuch as the human will is incapable of good. Preparatory grace transforms the will. In the execution of that which is good, grace cooperates with the free will. Good can therefore be ascribed both to God and man, to “God because of His prevenient grace, and to man because of his obedient free will.” The object of grace is to produce good works, which can be rewarded (in the form of man’s regeneration and salvation). The idea of merit and reward is a fundamental presupposition here, as it is in medieval theology in general.
The rejection of all merit prior to grace gives rise to the idea of predestination. God has called some, but left the others in their corruption. The concept of foreknowledge is, in a sense, denied: for as far as God is concerned, there is no distinction between present and future; that which is coming is, to God, the present. Hence the question concerns knowledge rather than foreknowledge.
Gregory’s presentation of the doctrine of the Atonement also served as a model for a number of medieval theologians, among them Anselm and Abelard. Gregory set Christ forth as an example for men, as well as the one who presented the substitutionary and atoning sacrifice to God for the sins of men. He is the mediator between God and man, who Himself bore the punishment for man’s guilt. The death of Christ is also described in this way: the devil overreached himself. The divine nature is likened to a fishhook hidden in Christ’s body, which the devil swallowed without taking note of who it was that he attacked.
The sacrificial aspect of the doctrine of the Atonement was associated with the idea of the Lord’s Supper as a sacrifice, in which the death of Christ is mysteriously repeated for us. “If He is resurrected to die no more, so that death no longer has any dominion over Him, He is nevertheless brought to us anew in His immortal and incorruptible life through the mystery of the holy sacrifice. His body is thereby given and received for man’s salvation, and His blood is poured out, not now at the hands of unbelievers but in the mouths of the faithful” (Dialogue IV, 58). The sacrificial nature of the Lord’s Supper is also described in terms of the sacrifice of contrite hearts on the part of the faithful.
Among Gregory’s most important writings is his interpretation of the Book of Job, entitled Moralia, which in many respects laid the foundation for the medieval view of life, including the ethical aspect. In his Dialogues, a collection of the miraculous deeds performed by holy men, Gregory did much to awaken and encourage the strong faith in miracles which was characteristic of medieval Christianity. He emphasized, among other things, the ability of the Lord’s Supper to influence even man’s temporal welfare. It was said, for example, that men were saved from shipwreck or imprisonment because others received the Lord’s Supper on their behalf (Dialogue IV, 57). The large number of Gregory’s letters which have been preserved deal chiefly with practical ecclesiastical matters.
In his teaching of penance, Gregory developed the concept of satisfaction as a means whereby eternal punishment could be mitigated or taken away; he also presented his ideas about purgatory in this connection. It was characteristic of Gregory, generally speaking, to combine the very best theological tradition (which he tried to preserve) with elements drawn from popular piety. Some of these were of a rather crass or vulgar nature, but even these were sanctioned by Gregory. In spite of this, however, Gregory the Great must be ranked without question among the most important of those who laid the foundation for medieval theology and for medieval culture in general.
Among these was Boethius, a Christian philosopher and an official under Emperor Theodoric. Accused of having connections with the Eastern Roman Empire, Boethius was arrested and finally executed in Pavia in 525. He is remembered as both the “last Roman” and the “first scholastic.” Through his own writings, as well as by his translations of Aristotle’s books on logic, he transmitted the knowledge of Aristotelian logic to the Middle Ages. His scientific system also served as a prototype for medieval university education.
The writings attributed to Dionysius the Areopagite also belong to this period. In four treatises entitled The Divine Name, The Heavenly Hierarchy, The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy, and The Mystical Theology he set forth a world system based on Neoplatonic patterns. He dealt here, among other things, with the angels, whom he divided into nine choruses, each in its turn divided into three triads. In the two latter treatises Dionysius presented his views on the sacraments and offices of the church, as well as on the soul’s way of salvation according to the postulates of mysticism. These writings plus 10 letters by the same author falsely claimed to be the work of Paul’s disciple Dionysius. The prolonged discussion of the origins of these writings was finally settled at the end of the last century, when it was demonstrated that parts of these writings were based on the work of Proclus (d. 485), a Neoplatonic philosopher. Inasmuch as they were quoted by theologians in the second decade of the sixth century, they can be dated somewhere between 485 and 515. They were probably written in Syria. And even though the subject matter involved lies on the periphery of theology, these writings played an important role throughout the Middle Ages. Knowledge of the world view and the religious system of Neoplatonism was transmitted to medieval Europe via these writings. These “pseudo-Dionysian” writings were translated into Latin by the philosopher John Scotus Erigena.
Cassiodorus (died ca. 583), like Boethius a statesman in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, made his reputation as a collector and encyclopedist. A contemporary whose name is associated not so much with the history of dogma as with general church history was Benedict of Nursia (d. 547), the famous monk whose monastic rule dominated Western cloisters until the 12th century. By virtue of his recommendations about study and writing in the monasteries, Benedict made an outstanding contribution to the enrichment of spiritual life during the Middle Ages.
Isidore of Seville appeared somewhat later (d. 636), but more than anyone else he collected the scientific and theological knowledge of that era and made it accessible for coming generations.
In a time of serious religious decline and material need, a former municipal prefect and monk (in Rome) was elected pope in 590. His name was Gregory. This is his own description of the church he was chosen to lead: “It is an old ship, hard beset by the waves, pressed about on all sides by heavy seas; the screeching of the rotting planks warns us of shipwreck ahead” (Epistle I, 4). In the history of dogma the pontificate of Gregory is usually considered the dividing line between the early church and the Middle Ages. The foundation of the medieval papacy was laid to a large extent during the years of his powerful reign. But Gregory’s contributions were of fundamental significance in the field of theology as well.
Gregory accepted Augustine’s doctrine of grace, in a simplified and unsophisticated form, and he passed this on to the Middle Ages. He taught that God’s love and grace precede man. Merit does not precede grace, inasmuch as the human will is incapable of good. Preparatory grace transforms the will. In the execution of that which is good, grace cooperates with the free will. Good can therefore be ascribed both to God and man, to “God because of His prevenient grace, and to man because of his obedient free will.” The object of grace is to produce good works, which can be rewarded (in the form of man’s regeneration and salvation). The idea of merit and reward is a fundamental presupposition here, as it is in medieval theology in general.
The rejection of all merit prior to grace gives rise to the idea of predestination. God has called some, but left the others in their corruption. The concept of foreknowledge is, in a sense, denied: for as far as God is concerned, there is no distinction between present and future; that which is coming is, to God, the present. Hence the question concerns knowledge rather than foreknowledge.
Gregory’s presentation of the doctrine of the Atonement also served as a model for a number of medieval theologians, among them Anselm and Abelard. Gregory set Christ forth as an example for men, as well as the one who presented the substitutionary and atoning sacrifice to God for the sins of men. He is the mediator between God and man, who Himself bore the punishment for man’s guilt. The death of Christ is also described in this way: the devil overreached himself. The divine nature is likened to a fishhook hidden in Christ’s body, which the devil swallowed without taking note of who it was that he attacked.
The sacrificial aspect of the doctrine of the Atonement was associated with the idea of the Lord’s Supper as a sacrifice, in which the death of Christ is mysteriously repeated for us. “If He is resurrected to die no more, so that death no longer has any dominion over Him, He is nevertheless brought to us anew in His immortal and incorruptible life through the mystery of the holy sacrifice. His body is thereby given and received for man’s salvation, and His blood is poured out, not now at the hands of unbelievers but in the mouths of the faithful” (Dialogue IV, 58). The sacrificial nature of the Lord’s Supper is also described in terms of the sacrifice of contrite hearts on the part of the faithful.
Among Gregory’s most important writings is his interpretation of the Book of Job, entitled Moralia, which in many respects laid the foundation for the medieval view of life, including the ethical aspect. In his Dialogues, a collection of the miraculous deeds performed by holy men, Gregory did much to awaken and encourage the strong faith in miracles which was characteristic of medieval Christianity. He emphasized, among other things, the ability of the Lord’s Supper to influence even man’s temporal welfare. It was said, for example, that men were saved from shipwreck or imprisonment because others received the Lord’s Supper on their behalf (Dialogue IV, 57). The large number of Gregory’s letters which have been preserved deal chiefly with practical ecclesiastical matters.
In his teaching of penance, Gregory developed the concept of satisfaction as a means whereby eternal punishment could be mitigated or taken away; he also presented his ideas about purgatory in this connection. It was characteristic of Gregory, generally speaking, to combine the very best theological tradition (which he tried to preserve) with elements drawn from popular piety. Some of these were of a rather crass or vulgar nature, but even these were sanctioned by Gregory. In spite of this, however, Gregory the Great must be ranked without question among the most important of those who laid the foundation for medieval theology and for medieval culture in general.
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