The authors of the second century who sought above all to defend Christianity against current allegations from Greek and Jewish sources are commonly remembered as the Apologists. To these men Christianity was the only true philosophy, a perfect replacement for the philosophy of the Greeks and the religion of the Jews, which could do no more than present unsatisfactory answers to man’s searching questions.
Chief among the Apologists was Justin, called “the martyr,” whose two “apologies” date from the middle of the second century. His Dialogue with Trypho the Jew was written at about the same time. Among the others was Aristides, who wrote the oldest “apology” now extant, Tatian (Oratio ad Graecos, a pamphlet directed against Greek culture, ca. 165), and Athenagoras (De resurrectione mortuorum and Supplicario pro Christianis, both written about 170). The following might also be included in this group: Theophilus of Antioch (Ad Autolycum libri tres, 169–182), and the Epistle to Diognetus, whose author is unknown, and the similarly anonymous Cohortatio ad Graecos, which appeared just before the middle of the third century. The last-named work has been erroneously ascribed to Justin. The Apologists wrote other pieces too, which are now lost and known only by name. (Cf., e.g., Eusebius’ Ecclesiastical History, IV, 3)
General Statement
The Apologists occupy a significant niche in the history of dogma, partly as a result of their description of Christianity as the true philosophy and partly as a result of their attempt to elucidate theological teachings with the help of contemporary philosophical terminology (for example, in the so-called “Logos Christology”). What we find here, therefore, is the first attempt to define, in a logical manner, the content of the Christian faith, as well as the first connection between theology and science, between Christianity and Greek philosophy.
The Apologists refuted the allegations directed against the Christians. Athenagoras (in his Supplicatio) discussed three main criticisms: godlessness, unnatural habits, and enmity toward the state. In response they directed an attack on Greek culture which was at times quite severe (Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos; Theophilus). But their most important contribution, as seen from the point of view of the history of dogma, was the positive way in which they presented Christianity as the true philosophy.
Christianity and Philosophy
The manner in which the Apologists conceived of the relationship between Christianity and philosophy is reflected in Justin’s autobiographical work, Dialogue with Trypho the Jew. Justin presents himself as a man who thinks very highly of philosophy and who has sought for satisfactory answers to philosophical questions in one philosophical system after another. The purpose of philosophy, according to Justin, is to provide true knowledge of God and existence and, in so doing, to promote a sense of well-being in human minds. Philosophy is designed to bring God and man together. Justin investigated the Stoics, the Peripatetics, and the Pythagoreans, but they had left him unmoved. At last he became a Platonist and thought that he could find the truth there. Then he met an old man, unknown to him, who directed his attention to the Old Testament prophets, insisting that they alone had seen and proclaimed the truth. “They have only taught that which they have heard and seen with the help of the Holy Spirit.” The testimony of this old man convinced Justin that Christianity was true. “My soul began immediately to burn, and I longed for the love of the prophets and the friends of Christ. I reflected upon their teachings, and found therein the only dependable and useful philosophy. It was in this way, and on this basis, that I became a philosopher.” (VII, VIII)
The fact that Christianity is the only true philosophy implies, therefore, that it alone has the right answers to philosophical questions. Philosophy also involves, in this sense, the religious question concerning the true knowledge of God. Christianity alone can provide this knowledge; philosophy seeks for it but is unable to find it. This trend of thought does not, in itself, imply that Christianity is dependent on and subordinate to philosophy, as is sometimes suggested. Christianity is based on revelation, and the Apologists did not believe that revelation can be replaced by rational deliberations. In this respect Christianity is opposed to all philosophy. Its truth is not based on reason; it has a divine origin. “No one but the prophets can instruct us about God and the true religion, for they teach on strength of divine inspiration” (the closing words of Cohortatio ad Graecos).
At the same time, however, the way the Apologists approached Christian truth involved the tendency to intellectualize its content. Reason (λογος) was the most prominent concept in their writings, and great stress was placed on the communication of truth.
Philosophy is evaluated in a variety of ways. Some of the Apologists were particularly critical of Greek philosophy. All pagan wisdom was to be replaced by revelation. Justin, on the other hand, had a more positive attitude toward the Greeks. It must be made clear, however, that the truth which can be discerned in such philosophers as Homer, Socrates, and Plato was basically derived from revelation. One related idea was that some of the wise men of Greece had visited Egypt and there became acquainted with the work of the prophets of Israel. Another idea suggested that the pagan philosophers shared in the λογος σπερματικος, which is implanted in all men. Even human wisdom thus is dependent on revelation—scattered beams of the divine reason which has shined forth in full clarity from Christ. Philosophers have certain fragments of truth. In Christ truth is fully present, for He is Himself God’s reason, the Logos who became man.
Logos Christology
The Logos concept, derived from contemporary philosophy, especially Stoicism with its doctrine of universal reason, was used by the Apologists to explain how Christ was related to God the Father. Something of the Logos, they said, is to be found in all men. Reason, like an embryo, is implanted within them (λογος σπερματικος). But the Apologists, unlike the Stoics, did not say that this was some kind of a general, pantheistically conceived universal reason. They rather equated the Logos with Christ. On this basis they could say that Plato and Socrates were Christians too, to the extent that they gave expression to reason. Their wisdom came to them from Christ via the prophets or a general revelation.
The Greek logos means both “mason” and “word.” The Logos has been with God, as His own reason, from all eternity (λογος εvδιαθετος). Subsequently this reason proceeded out of the essence of God, according to God’s own decision, as the λογος προφορικος, the Word which originated with God. This was done at the time of the creation of the world. God created the world according to His reason and through the Word, which proceeded from Him. In this way Christ was involved in the creation of the world. He is the Word, born of the Father, through which all has come into being. “In the fulness of time” this same divine reason clad Himself in a physical form and became man.
In this application of the Logos concept the Apologists found a way of describing the relationship of the Son to the Father in the Godhead by using recognized philosophical terms. Christ is truly God, but God is nevertheless not divided. Just as the word proceeds from reason, or—to use another analogy—as the light streams forth from the lamp, so has the Son come forth from the Father as the Firstborn without diminishing God or destroying the unity of the Godhead. This Logos Christology was an attempt to answer the Christian faith’s most difficult question in the language of the day. The Apologists selected a concept from contemporary philosophy and used it to describe what to the Greek mind was absurd—that Christ is God but that the unity of the Godhead is not thereby denied.
It is implicit in this way of thinking, that even though the Logos has always been a part of the divine essence as the indwelling reason, it did not proceed from the Deity until the time of the creation of the world. Christ, therefore, would have been generated in time, or at the beginning of time. This philosophical Logos doctrine would also seem to suggest that Christ occupies a subordinate position relative to the Father. The Christology of the Apologists has often been labeled “subordinationist” as a result. It may well appear thus as seen from the point of view of a later time. The idea of the Son’s generation in time, for example, has been opposed (Origen, see below), as well as the use of the philosophical Logos doctrine in the field of Christology (Irenaeus). But we must also remember that the Apologists posited the preexistence of the Logos in no uncertain terms, even though its appearance as “the Son” was thought to have taken place initially at the time of the creation. Furthermore, we should not forget that at the time of the Apologists the terminology employed to express the differences between the “Persons” of the Trinity had not yet been devised. In the light of this, therefore, it is not fair to infer that the Apologists specifically taught that the Son is subordinate to the Father. (Cf. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, pp. 100 f.)
If Christ is presented as Logos, the divine reason, it is natural to conceive of His work primarily in pedagogical terms. He presents us with the true knowledge of God and instructs us in the new law, which guides us on the way to life. Salvation is interpreted in intellectual and moralistic categories. Sin is equated with ignorance. Man is thought to be free to do what is good, but only Christ can show him the true way to righteousness and life. The necessity of living according to the Law is emphasized, and in this respect the Apologists’ view of the Christian life is in agreement with that of the Apostolic Fathers. As seen from the point of view of the historical development of dogma, the chief contribution of the Apologists was their attempt to combine Christianity and Greek learning, an attempt which found its chief expression in the Logos doctrine and its application to Christology.
Chief among the Apologists was Justin, called “the martyr,” whose two “apologies” date from the middle of the second century. His Dialogue with Trypho the Jew was written at about the same time. Among the others was Aristides, who wrote the oldest “apology” now extant, Tatian (Oratio ad Graecos, a pamphlet directed against Greek culture, ca. 165), and Athenagoras (De resurrectione mortuorum and Supplicario pro Christianis, both written about 170). The following might also be included in this group: Theophilus of Antioch (Ad Autolycum libri tres, 169–182), and the Epistle to Diognetus, whose author is unknown, and the similarly anonymous Cohortatio ad Graecos, which appeared just before the middle of the third century. The last-named work has been erroneously ascribed to Justin. The Apologists wrote other pieces too, which are now lost and known only by name. (Cf., e.g., Eusebius’ Ecclesiastical History, IV, 3)
General Statement
The Apologists occupy a significant niche in the history of dogma, partly as a result of their description of Christianity as the true philosophy and partly as a result of their attempt to elucidate theological teachings with the help of contemporary philosophical terminology (for example, in the so-called “Logos Christology”). What we find here, therefore, is the first attempt to define, in a logical manner, the content of the Christian faith, as well as the first connection between theology and science, between Christianity and Greek philosophy.
The Apologists refuted the allegations directed against the Christians. Athenagoras (in his Supplicatio) discussed three main criticisms: godlessness, unnatural habits, and enmity toward the state. In response they directed an attack on Greek culture which was at times quite severe (Tatian, Oratio ad Graecos; Theophilus). But their most important contribution, as seen from the point of view of the history of dogma, was the positive way in which they presented Christianity as the true philosophy.
Christianity and Philosophy
The manner in which the Apologists conceived of the relationship between Christianity and philosophy is reflected in Justin’s autobiographical work, Dialogue with Trypho the Jew. Justin presents himself as a man who thinks very highly of philosophy and who has sought for satisfactory answers to philosophical questions in one philosophical system after another. The purpose of philosophy, according to Justin, is to provide true knowledge of God and existence and, in so doing, to promote a sense of well-being in human minds. Philosophy is designed to bring God and man together. Justin investigated the Stoics, the Peripatetics, and the Pythagoreans, but they had left him unmoved. At last he became a Platonist and thought that he could find the truth there. Then he met an old man, unknown to him, who directed his attention to the Old Testament prophets, insisting that they alone had seen and proclaimed the truth. “They have only taught that which they have heard and seen with the help of the Holy Spirit.” The testimony of this old man convinced Justin that Christianity was true. “My soul began immediately to burn, and I longed for the love of the prophets and the friends of Christ. I reflected upon their teachings, and found therein the only dependable and useful philosophy. It was in this way, and on this basis, that I became a philosopher.” (VII, VIII)
The fact that Christianity is the only true philosophy implies, therefore, that it alone has the right answers to philosophical questions. Philosophy also involves, in this sense, the religious question concerning the true knowledge of God. Christianity alone can provide this knowledge; philosophy seeks for it but is unable to find it. This trend of thought does not, in itself, imply that Christianity is dependent on and subordinate to philosophy, as is sometimes suggested. Christianity is based on revelation, and the Apologists did not believe that revelation can be replaced by rational deliberations. In this respect Christianity is opposed to all philosophy. Its truth is not based on reason; it has a divine origin. “No one but the prophets can instruct us about God and the true religion, for they teach on strength of divine inspiration” (the closing words of Cohortatio ad Graecos).
At the same time, however, the way the Apologists approached Christian truth involved the tendency to intellectualize its content. Reason (λογος) was the most prominent concept in their writings, and great stress was placed on the communication of truth.
Philosophy is evaluated in a variety of ways. Some of the Apologists were particularly critical of Greek philosophy. All pagan wisdom was to be replaced by revelation. Justin, on the other hand, had a more positive attitude toward the Greeks. It must be made clear, however, that the truth which can be discerned in such philosophers as Homer, Socrates, and Plato was basically derived from revelation. One related idea was that some of the wise men of Greece had visited Egypt and there became acquainted with the work of the prophets of Israel. Another idea suggested that the pagan philosophers shared in the λογος σπερματικος, which is implanted in all men. Even human wisdom thus is dependent on revelation—scattered beams of the divine reason which has shined forth in full clarity from Christ. Philosophers have certain fragments of truth. In Christ truth is fully present, for He is Himself God’s reason, the Logos who became man.
Logos Christology
The Logos concept, derived from contemporary philosophy, especially Stoicism with its doctrine of universal reason, was used by the Apologists to explain how Christ was related to God the Father. Something of the Logos, they said, is to be found in all men. Reason, like an embryo, is implanted within them (λογος σπερματικος). But the Apologists, unlike the Stoics, did not say that this was some kind of a general, pantheistically conceived universal reason. They rather equated the Logos with Christ. On this basis they could say that Plato and Socrates were Christians too, to the extent that they gave expression to reason. Their wisdom came to them from Christ via the prophets or a general revelation.
The Greek logos means both “mason” and “word.” The Logos has been with God, as His own reason, from all eternity (λογος εvδιαθετος). Subsequently this reason proceeded out of the essence of God, according to God’s own decision, as the λογος προφορικος, the Word which originated with God. This was done at the time of the creation of the world. God created the world according to His reason and through the Word, which proceeded from Him. In this way Christ was involved in the creation of the world. He is the Word, born of the Father, through which all has come into being. “In the fulness of time” this same divine reason clad Himself in a physical form and became man.
In this application of the Logos concept the Apologists found a way of describing the relationship of the Son to the Father in the Godhead by using recognized philosophical terms. Christ is truly God, but God is nevertheless not divided. Just as the word proceeds from reason, or—to use another analogy—as the light streams forth from the lamp, so has the Son come forth from the Father as the Firstborn without diminishing God or destroying the unity of the Godhead. This Logos Christology was an attempt to answer the Christian faith’s most difficult question in the language of the day. The Apologists selected a concept from contemporary philosophy and used it to describe what to the Greek mind was absurd—that Christ is God but that the unity of the Godhead is not thereby denied.
It is implicit in this way of thinking, that even though the Logos has always been a part of the divine essence as the indwelling reason, it did not proceed from the Deity until the time of the creation of the world. Christ, therefore, would have been generated in time, or at the beginning of time. This philosophical Logos doctrine would also seem to suggest that Christ occupies a subordinate position relative to the Father. The Christology of the Apologists has often been labeled “subordinationist” as a result. It may well appear thus as seen from the point of view of a later time. The idea of the Son’s generation in time, for example, has been opposed (Origen, see below), as well as the use of the philosophical Logos doctrine in the field of Christology (Irenaeus). But we must also remember that the Apologists posited the preexistence of the Logos in no uncertain terms, even though its appearance as “the Son” was thought to have taken place initially at the time of the creation. Furthermore, we should not forget that at the time of the Apologists the terminology employed to express the differences between the “Persons” of the Trinity had not yet been devised. In the light of this, therefore, it is not fair to infer that the Apologists specifically taught that the Son is subordinate to the Father. (Cf. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, pp. 100 f.)
If Christ is presented as Logos, the divine reason, it is natural to conceive of His work primarily in pedagogical terms. He presents us with the true knowledge of God and instructs us in the new law, which guides us on the way to life. Salvation is interpreted in intellectual and moralistic categories. Sin is equated with ignorance. Man is thought to be free to do what is good, but only Christ can show him the true way to righteousness and life. The necessity of living according to the Law is emphasized, and in this respect the Apologists’ view of the Christian life is in agreement with that of the Apostolic Fathers. As seen from the point of view of the historical development of dogma, the chief contribution of the Apologists was their attempt to combine Christianity and Greek learning, an attempt which found its chief expression in the Logos doctrine and its application to Christology.
No comments:
Post a Comment