The development of scholastic theology continued within the Roman Catholic Church through the 16th century and a large part of the 17th, but under new conditions. Paris was no longer the main center of theological education; other seats of learning, such as Salamanca in Spain and Coimbra in Portugal, which remained largely untouched by the newer streams of thought, took its place. A vital factor in all of this was the organization of two new religious orders, the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) and the reformed Carmelites.
Among the Dominican theologians Cardinal Cajetan of Italy (d. 1534) assumed a prominent position. He participated in the discussions concerning Luther and the Reformation but is probably best known for his commentary on Thomas Aquinas’ Summa theologica (which was reprinted in the official publication of this work, the Leonina edition of 1882 ff. Generally speaking, the theology of Thomas Aquinas was used more and more as the basis of instruction during this time. His Summa theologica replaced Peter Lombard’s Sentences as the dogmatic handbook. The Dominican school at Salamanca became the chief promoter of the Thomist tradition. (Cf. Dominicus Soto, d. 1560, and Melchior Cano, d. 1560, authors of Loci theologici, the first of its kind.)
Among the theologians who were engaged in a direct way in the controversy with the Reformers (chiefly Luther) were Johann Eck (Enchiridion locorum communium adversus Lutheranos, 1525), and Peter Canisius (Jesuit, d. 1597), leader of the German Counter-Reformation.
The decisive event which took place in the Roman Catholic Church during the time of the Counter-Reformation was the council which assembled at Trent on Dec. 13, 1545, and continued (in three different phases with long time intervals) until Dec. 4, 1563. (A total of 25 sessions were held.) The Council of Trent formed the terminus of certain trends in the medieval development and was of great significance for the future, inasmuch as it fixed Roman Catholic doctrine and practice in the new situation brought about by the Reformation. Among the crucial Tridentine decisions which affected Roman Catholic doctrine and practice, we are chiefly interested here in the decretal of the fourth session concerning the canonical Scriptures and the decretal of the seventh session concerning justification.
The scope of the Biblical canon was established at Trent (the apocryphal books of the Old Testament period were included), and the Latin “Vulgate” translation was declared to be the authentic version (a normative edition came out in 1590). But in addition to the canonical Scriptures, the Council of Trent also accepted, as being equally valuable for the determination of dogma, the “traditions” which originated with Christ or the apostles and which were preserved in the church through the years. These were “received and honored with the same piety and reverence” as the Scriptures (pari pietatis affectu ac reverentia suscipit et veneratur). It was concluded that these traditions, as defined by Trent, were “dictated by the Holy Spirit” just as the canonical Scriptures were. The question concerning the relationship between Scripture and tradition (are they two parallel sources, or can tradition be thought of as being included in some way in the Scriptures?) has been thoroughly discussed in recent years. The Tridentine interpretation suggested, however, that this was a question of two parallel norms of faith, an attitude which was clearly different from the Scripture principle of the Reformation.
The Tridentine doctrine of justification was constructed on the basis of two fundamental concepts, both of which sharply indicate the disparity between the Roman Catholic and the evangelical doctrine of salvation: partly the idea that the human will cooperates with the grace of God in securing salvation and partly the claim that good works are necessary for the preservation of righteousness and for the final possession of eternal life.
On the questions in controversy between Thomism (which was influenced by Augustine) and Scotism (which was tinged with Semi-Pelagian views) it was possible to avoid taking a definite position. A certain preparation was said to be necessary for justification, but nothing was stated about whether or not this is meritorious. What is involved? Accepting the inviting grace and cooperating in those acts which follow the invitation and precede baptism (repentance, love to God, faith in revelation, etc.). In agreement with Thomism it is assumed that the inviting grace is the First step in conversion, but Trent at the same time attached significance to the cooperation of the will and to the preparatory acts. What the Reformers said about complete assurance was rejected (“this vain confidence, remote from all piety”). Instead it is asserted that one can never know with certainty that he possesses the grace of God and that to remain in grace and grow in it he must fulfill the commands of God and the church. The passage “Faith without works is dead” is quoted in this connection. Eternal life is described at one and the same time as a gift of grace, made available through Christ, and as a reward for one’s own merits. The doctrines that justification consists of forgiveness of sins and that the gift of eternal life is provided exclusively for Christ’s sake are anathematized above all else.
If justification is looked upon, essentially, as the infusion of grace, and if this is thought to take place through the sacraments, then it is only natural that the Tridentine decisions concerning justification should have been followed by deliberations concerning the doctrine of the sacraments. The fifth session, and various others that followed, issued decretals related to this question. As a matter of fact, the doctrine of the sacraments assumed a dominating position throughout the entire remainder of the council. Many of the points of doctrine which have been thought of ever since as specifically characteristic of the Roman Catholic Church were given their definitive formulation at Trent. For example, the teaching of transubstantiation (at the 13th session); the use of the confessional (at the 14th session); the doctrine of the sacrifice of the Mass (at the 22d session); and the adoration of saints and relics, plus the teaching of purgatory and indulgences (at the 25th session).
After the Council of Trent, scholastic theology blossomed forth again for an entire century. A new element was introduced by the philosophy of humanism, with its insistence on a return to the ancient sources. A renewed study of Aristotle and other philosophers of antiquity resulted from this program. For the most part, however, the old orders perpetuated their theological traditions. Thomist theology exercised the greatest influence. Scotism was perpetuated chiefly among the Franciscans. The new Jesuit order was eclectic in nature. It was also most open-minded about the new philosophy. Extended controversies were carried on between the Jesuits and the Thomists.
One of the Jesuits who conveyed the humanistic scholasticism of Spain to Germany was Gregory of Valencia (d. 1603, professor at Ingolstadt). As a result of his efforts, Roman scholasticism was revived in Germany. Most prominent among the Jesuit theologians, as well as among the newer scholastics in general, was Francisco Suarez (d. 1617, active in Salamanca). His combining of scholastic theology and Neo-Aristotelian metaphysics made a significant contribution to theological education at that time. His textbook in the field of metaphysics, Disputationes metaphysicae, was also widely used among Protestants. As a result of his labors, Suarez became one of the precursors of the Neo-Aristotelian school in Germany (about which more will be said later on).
Among the polemical theologians, the Jesuit Robert Bellarmine (d. 1621, cardinal) stood out above the rest. His book, Disputationes de controversiis christianae fidei (1586–93), dealt with Protestant objections point by point. Because of it, even more fundamental and comprehensive rebuttals appeared from the Protestant side. (For example, Johann Gerhard’s Confessio catholica, 1634–37; see below.)
A significant facet of Roman Catholic theology—not least of all in more recent times—has been the literature of mysticism. As was true of scholasticism, Catholic mysticism in the 16th century was above all a product of Spain. The founder of the Jesuit order, Ignatius Loyola (d. 1556), exerted a strong influence on Roman Catholic piety, primarily through his Spiritual Exercises, a handbook designed for the discipline of the spiritual life. Most prominent among the mystics of that age were Theresa de Jesus (d. 1582) and Juan de la Cruz (“John of the Cross,” d. 1591), who together organized the so-called “Barefoot Carmelite” order. St. Theresa, who is also well known for her literary achievements, described the experiences of the mystics with profound psychological insight. John of the Cross, employing theological insight provided by Thomas Aquinas, has given us the classical Roman Catholic presentation of the psychology and metaphysics of mysticism. He has been referred to as “the teacher of Catholic mysticism” (Grabmann).
One of the opponents of the prevailing scholasticism, with its Pelagian tendencies and its emphasis on merit, was the Belgian theologian Michael Baius (d. 1589, chancellor of the University of Louvain). He went back to the Bible and to Augustine, and taught that man is incapable of good, rejecting at the same time the meritorious nature of good works. In 1567 Pope Pius V condemned 76 items in Baius’ writings.
Baius’ critique of scholasticism reappeared with renewed strength in the form of “Jansenism.” Cornelius Jansen (d.1638, professor at Louvain and bishop of Ypres) concluded, as the result of his exhaustive study of the writings of Augustine, that scholastic theology had fallen away from the ancient ecclesiastical tradition. In his major work, Augustine, published in 1640, he presented the Augustinian concept of grace and predestination in its strictest form. He wrote that the human will is completely depraved and subject to concupiscence. Only the gift of grace can enable man to do good works.
Augustinian theology also played a fundamental role in the reform movement which had its center in the monastery at Port Royal. In the 1640s Antoine Arnauld was the leader of this movement, which was strongly opposed by the Jesuits. The pope condemned some facets of the Port Royal theology, which was allegedly repeating Jansenist ideas. Among those who became involved in the struggle was Blaise Pascal (d. 1662), who identified himself with the Jansenists. In his well-known Provincial Letters (1656–57) Pascal directed a sharp and brilliantly executed attack on the Pelagian concept of grace and on the casuistry of Jesuit ethics with its neglect of the conscience.
Even though it was violently attacked by the Jesuits, the Jansenist movement continued its activity for a long time, and was brought to an end only by degrees. The monastery at Port Royal was destroyed in 1709–10, and in the papal bull “Unigenitus” (1713) the Jansenist point of view was condemned anew. The revealing criticism directed at the Jesuits from this source (particularly in the Provincial Letters), however, turned out to be one of the causes of the spreading opposition to Jesuit activity. As a result, the Jesuits were forbidden to function in France in 1764.
One of the major developments in the Roman Catholic Church from the middle of the 17th century on into the 19th century was the progressive disintegration of scholastic theology. How did this happen? The Jansenist movement, whose criticisms were motivated by a deep concern for the church, contributed to this decline, as well as the newer philosophy and, later on, the spirit of the Enlightenment.
Among the Dominican theologians Cardinal Cajetan of Italy (d. 1534) assumed a prominent position. He participated in the discussions concerning Luther and the Reformation but is probably best known for his commentary on Thomas Aquinas’ Summa theologica (which was reprinted in the official publication of this work, the Leonina edition of 1882 ff. Generally speaking, the theology of Thomas Aquinas was used more and more as the basis of instruction during this time. His Summa theologica replaced Peter Lombard’s Sentences as the dogmatic handbook. The Dominican school at Salamanca became the chief promoter of the Thomist tradition. (Cf. Dominicus Soto, d. 1560, and Melchior Cano, d. 1560, authors of Loci theologici, the first of its kind.)
Among the theologians who were engaged in a direct way in the controversy with the Reformers (chiefly Luther) were Johann Eck (Enchiridion locorum communium adversus Lutheranos, 1525), and Peter Canisius (Jesuit, d. 1597), leader of the German Counter-Reformation.
The decisive event which took place in the Roman Catholic Church during the time of the Counter-Reformation was the council which assembled at Trent on Dec. 13, 1545, and continued (in three different phases with long time intervals) until Dec. 4, 1563. (A total of 25 sessions were held.) The Council of Trent formed the terminus of certain trends in the medieval development and was of great significance for the future, inasmuch as it fixed Roman Catholic doctrine and practice in the new situation brought about by the Reformation. Among the crucial Tridentine decisions which affected Roman Catholic doctrine and practice, we are chiefly interested here in the decretal of the fourth session concerning the canonical Scriptures and the decretal of the seventh session concerning justification.
The scope of the Biblical canon was established at Trent (the apocryphal books of the Old Testament period were included), and the Latin “Vulgate” translation was declared to be the authentic version (a normative edition came out in 1590). But in addition to the canonical Scriptures, the Council of Trent also accepted, as being equally valuable for the determination of dogma, the “traditions” which originated with Christ or the apostles and which were preserved in the church through the years. These were “received and honored with the same piety and reverence” as the Scriptures (pari pietatis affectu ac reverentia suscipit et veneratur). It was concluded that these traditions, as defined by Trent, were “dictated by the Holy Spirit” just as the canonical Scriptures were. The question concerning the relationship between Scripture and tradition (are they two parallel sources, or can tradition be thought of as being included in some way in the Scriptures?) has been thoroughly discussed in recent years. The Tridentine interpretation suggested, however, that this was a question of two parallel norms of faith, an attitude which was clearly different from the Scripture principle of the Reformation.
The Tridentine doctrine of justification was constructed on the basis of two fundamental concepts, both of which sharply indicate the disparity between the Roman Catholic and the evangelical doctrine of salvation: partly the idea that the human will cooperates with the grace of God in securing salvation and partly the claim that good works are necessary for the preservation of righteousness and for the final possession of eternal life.
On the questions in controversy between Thomism (which was influenced by Augustine) and Scotism (which was tinged with Semi-Pelagian views) it was possible to avoid taking a definite position. A certain preparation was said to be necessary for justification, but nothing was stated about whether or not this is meritorious. What is involved? Accepting the inviting grace and cooperating in those acts which follow the invitation and precede baptism (repentance, love to God, faith in revelation, etc.). In agreement with Thomism it is assumed that the inviting grace is the First step in conversion, but Trent at the same time attached significance to the cooperation of the will and to the preparatory acts. What the Reformers said about complete assurance was rejected (“this vain confidence, remote from all piety”). Instead it is asserted that one can never know with certainty that he possesses the grace of God and that to remain in grace and grow in it he must fulfill the commands of God and the church. The passage “Faith without works is dead” is quoted in this connection. Eternal life is described at one and the same time as a gift of grace, made available through Christ, and as a reward for one’s own merits. The doctrines that justification consists of forgiveness of sins and that the gift of eternal life is provided exclusively for Christ’s sake are anathematized above all else.
If justification is looked upon, essentially, as the infusion of grace, and if this is thought to take place through the sacraments, then it is only natural that the Tridentine decisions concerning justification should have been followed by deliberations concerning the doctrine of the sacraments. The fifth session, and various others that followed, issued decretals related to this question. As a matter of fact, the doctrine of the sacraments assumed a dominating position throughout the entire remainder of the council. Many of the points of doctrine which have been thought of ever since as specifically characteristic of the Roman Catholic Church were given their definitive formulation at Trent. For example, the teaching of transubstantiation (at the 13th session); the use of the confessional (at the 14th session); the doctrine of the sacrifice of the Mass (at the 22d session); and the adoration of saints and relics, plus the teaching of purgatory and indulgences (at the 25th session).
After the Council of Trent, scholastic theology blossomed forth again for an entire century. A new element was introduced by the philosophy of humanism, with its insistence on a return to the ancient sources. A renewed study of Aristotle and other philosophers of antiquity resulted from this program. For the most part, however, the old orders perpetuated their theological traditions. Thomist theology exercised the greatest influence. Scotism was perpetuated chiefly among the Franciscans. The new Jesuit order was eclectic in nature. It was also most open-minded about the new philosophy. Extended controversies were carried on between the Jesuits and the Thomists.
One of the Jesuits who conveyed the humanistic scholasticism of Spain to Germany was Gregory of Valencia (d. 1603, professor at Ingolstadt). As a result of his efforts, Roman scholasticism was revived in Germany. Most prominent among the Jesuit theologians, as well as among the newer scholastics in general, was Francisco Suarez (d. 1617, active in Salamanca). His combining of scholastic theology and Neo-Aristotelian metaphysics made a significant contribution to theological education at that time. His textbook in the field of metaphysics, Disputationes metaphysicae, was also widely used among Protestants. As a result of his labors, Suarez became one of the precursors of the Neo-Aristotelian school in Germany (about which more will be said later on).
Among the polemical theologians, the Jesuit Robert Bellarmine (d. 1621, cardinal) stood out above the rest. His book, Disputationes de controversiis christianae fidei (1586–93), dealt with Protestant objections point by point. Because of it, even more fundamental and comprehensive rebuttals appeared from the Protestant side. (For example, Johann Gerhard’s Confessio catholica, 1634–37; see below.)
A significant facet of Roman Catholic theology—not least of all in more recent times—has been the literature of mysticism. As was true of scholasticism, Catholic mysticism in the 16th century was above all a product of Spain. The founder of the Jesuit order, Ignatius Loyola (d. 1556), exerted a strong influence on Roman Catholic piety, primarily through his Spiritual Exercises, a handbook designed for the discipline of the spiritual life. Most prominent among the mystics of that age were Theresa de Jesus (d. 1582) and Juan de la Cruz (“John of the Cross,” d. 1591), who together organized the so-called “Barefoot Carmelite” order. St. Theresa, who is also well known for her literary achievements, described the experiences of the mystics with profound psychological insight. John of the Cross, employing theological insight provided by Thomas Aquinas, has given us the classical Roman Catholic presentation of the psychology and metaphysics of mysticism. He has been referred to as “the teacher of Catholic mysticism” (Grabmann).
One of the opponents of the prevailing scholasticism, with its Pelagian tendencies and its emphasis on merit, was the Belgian theologian Michael Baius (d. 1589, chancellor of the University of Louvain). He went back to the Bible and to Augustine, and taught that man is incapable of good, rejecting at the same time the meritorious nature of good works. In 1567 Pope Pius V condemned 76 items in Baius’ writings.
Baius’ critique of scholasticism reappeared with renewed strength in the form of “Jansenism.” Cornelius Jansen (d.1638, professor at Louvain and bishop of Ypres) concluded, as the result of his exhaustive study of the writings of Augustine, that scholastic theology had fallen away from the ancient ecclesiastical tradition. In his major work, Augustine, published in 1640, he presented the Augustinian concept of grace and predestination in its strictest form. He wrote that the human will is completely depraved and subject to concupiscence. Only the gift of grace can enable man to do good works.
Augustinian theology also played a fundamental role in the reform movement which had its center in the monastery at Port Royal. In the 1640s Antoine Arnauld was the leader of this movement, which was strongly opposed by the Jesuits. The pope condemned some facets of the Port Royal theology, which was allegedly repeating Jansenist ideas. Among those who became involved in the struggle was Blaise Pascal (d. 1662), who identified himself with the Jansenists. In his well-known Provincial Letters (1656–57) Pascal directed a sharp and brilliantly executed attack on the Pelagian concept of grace and on the casuistry of Jesuit ethics with its neglect of the conscience.
Even though it was violently attacked by the Jesuits, the Jansenist movement continued its activity for a long time, and was brought to an end only by degrees. The monastery at Port Royal was destroyed in 1709–10, and in the papal bull “Unigenitus” (1713) the Jansenist point of view was condemned anew. The revealing criticism directed at the Jesuits from this source (particularly in the Provincial Letters), however, turned out to be one of the causes of the spreading opposition to Jesuit activity. As a result, the Jesuits were forbidden to function in France in 1764.
One of the major developments in the Roman Catholic Church from the middle of the 17th century on into the 19th century was the progressive disintegration of scholastic theology. How did this happen? The Jansenist movement, whose criticisms were motivated by a deep concern for the church, contributed to this decline, as well as the newer philosophy and, later on, the spirit of the Enlightenment.
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