Is the Psalter a Book with a Single Message?

By S. Jonathan Murphy

[S. Jonathan Murphy is Instructor in Pastoral Ministries, Dallas Theological Seminary, Dallas, Texas.]

The Psalms have always enjoyed a special place in the life of the church. Many believers have been spiritually refreshed and nourished as they have read, memorized, prayed, sung, and poured over these wonderful portions of the Scriptures. They have helped believers voice inner emotions often difficult to express. The Psalms have taught believers to pray, sing, weep, and praise. Though they express the cry of the human heart to God, they also convey His comfort and hope. Luther appropriately declared, “The Psalter is the book of all saints; and everyone, in whatever situation he may be, finds in that situation Psalms and words that fit his case, that suit him as if they were put there just for his sake, so that he could not put it better himself, or find or wish for anything better.”[1]

Historically this great work has been approached at an individual level—taking each psalm (or a small cluster of psalms) alone as though it were the only one to be studied. While this approach dominates the history of Psalms studies, it has always been believed that each psalm is part of a greater whole. Academic undertakings of the twentieth century gave further weight to this approach by applying form criticism to the study and classification of individual psalms.[2] However, a new paradigm has emerged in studies of the Psalms. This change approaches the Scriptures “as texts, that is, as literary entities and canonical wholes.”[3] Consequently a fresh wave of research approaches the Psalter holistically, that is, as though it is a book with a single unifying message. This article explores the recent trend in Psalms studies to view the Psalter as a book.

Holistic Approaches To The Psalms

Gerald H. Wilson: A Celebration Of Yahweh’s Kingship

One ought not discuss a holistic approach to the Book of Psalms today without noting the contribution of Gerald H. Wilson. Under the tutelage of Brevard S. Childs, Wilson initially presented his approach to the Hebrew Psalter in his 1981 dissertation, “The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter.”[4] This groundbreaking essay developed Wilson’s own adaptation of Childs’s canonical criticism to the Psalms, and it also set the stage for further studies on the Psalter.[5] Wilson proposed the thesis that the final canonical form of the Psalter evidenced editorial clues that suggest a purposeful structural arrangement that marks the Psalter as a book rather than a mere collection of hymns. He argued that the arrangement of the Psalter is in response to the removal of the Davidic monarchy that resulted from the Exile in 586 B.C. by directing the readers away from human kingship to trusting and celebrating Yahweh’s kingship.[6] The Psalter, Wilson said, is not just a collection of individual psalms; instead it has a distinct single message.

Wilson investigated ancient Near Eastern hymnal literature from Mesopotamia, the Qumran psalms, and Sumerian temple pieces in order to glean comparative clues to the Hebrew Psalter, also an ancient Near Eastern text. He applied the editorial techniques discovered in these works as a “stimulus as well as control in the subsequent analysis of the canonical Psalter.”[7] Using these techniques he looked for evidence of editorial activity in the Psalter’s arrangement, and he examined the significance his results would have for understanding the editorial purpose behind the final shape of the book.[8]

Wilson proposed that the message of the Book of Psalms differs from the accepted understanding that the Psalter’s fivefold structure in some way mirrors Moses’ Pentateuch and was part of the lectionary cycle in the Jewish synagogue. He suggested that Psalm 1 functions as an introduction to the whole Psalter, promoting private meditation on the Torah of God (attributing Torah-like status to the Psalms) rather than a public and ceremonial role. He also suggested that the final Hallel Psalms (Pss. 146–150) conclude the book as a climax of praise to Yahweh. The five recognized books in the Hebrew Psalter are marked off by doxologies (Pss. 41, 72, 89, 106, 145) that emphasize the demise of the Davidic kingship in books 1–3 and proclaim Yahweh’s kingship in books 4 and 5. The Psalter is a book of wisdom that celebrates Yahweh’s kingship—in contrast to David’s—as well as rehearsing His instruction for the faithful.[9]

Walter Brueggemann: Obedience To Praise

Brueggemann also argues for a unified message in the book of Psalms and he discusses the question of “theological intentionality” in the Psalter.[10] He follows Childs’s method of finding the canonical shape of a biblical book by considering the beginning and concluding sections as well as progressing through the work from one end to the other. Like Wilson, he believes it is necessary to read the Psalms sequentially—as one would any other book—if one is to grasp the message and role of the work correctly.

According to Brueggemann’s scheme the fixed points to note in the book are Psalms 1, 73, and 150. The Psalter intentionally begins with Psalm 1 because it functions as the preface to the entire book, announcing one of two major theological ingredients in the message of the work, which are obedience and praise. Psalm 1 suggests “that all the psalms should be read through the prism of torah obedience.”[11] This strategically placed introductory psalm serves as an entry point into the entire Psalter with the intention of evoking and authorizing the community to trust and joyfully obey God.[12] Without this approach to the Psalter through the lens of Psalm 1 individual psalms may be interpreted differently and may seem perplexing.

Psalm 150, the exit point of the Psalter, is undoubtedly a psalm of praise—a “determined, enthusiastic, uninterrupted, relentless, unrelieved summons which will not be content until all creatures, all of life, are ‘ready and willing’ to participate in an unending song of praise that is sung without reserve or qualification.”[13] This climaxes the other major theological ingredient of the message of the book, namely, praise.

Obedience (Ps. 1) and praise (Ps. 150) stand as pillars to the Psalter. They frame the book as the perimeters and guardians of its message. The theological intentionality or progression within the book, therefore, is one from obedience to praise. Brueggemann, of course, recognizes the presence of suffering and lament within the Psalter, but he also stresses that these hymns hold out hope that struggles can be overcome through faith and obedience. Brueggemann asserts that the trail through the Psalter, given the outer boundaries of obedience and doxology, is by way of “candor about suffering and gratitude about hope.”[14]

The sequence and arrangement of the Psalter makes a theological declaration. Its very shape makes a statement about the shape of life for the faithful. The book’s arrangement corresponds with life itself; it is to begin with obedience and to end in praise. “Obedience is the unavoidable initiating point of praise, and praise is the appropriate culmination of obedience.”[15] Thus the Psalter is an editorially arranged book with a specific and unified message.

David C. Mitchell: The Eschatological Program Of God

David C. Mitchell is yet another advocate for a purposeful arrangement of Psalms as a book. He too views the Psalter as evidencing a specific theological point rather than being a “random” anthology. The Hebrew Psalter “was designed by its redactors as a purposefully ordered arrangement of lyrics with an eschatological message.”[16] His suggestion is that the Psalter has an eschatological rather than a historical message. Wilson argued for a historical reading in which the Psalter sought to deal with the failure of the Davidic monarchy and the subsequent need to trust in Yahweh’s kingship. Mitchell, on the other hand, believes the Psalter looks forward to what will happen rather than back to what had happened.

Mitchell bases his approach on both external and internal evidence. Regarding external evidence he argues for the “eschatologically conscious milieu” of the Psalter’s final editing and the traditional understanding that David was a prophetic figure.[17] The royal psalms form the backbone for what Mitchell sees as internal evidence. He says that the royal psalms are especially striking since the final shape of the Psalter would have been established after the fall of the monarchy. Mitchell also examines the psalms of Asaph (Pss. 50, 73–83) and the songs of ascent (Pss. 120–134) in arguing for the Psalter’s eschatological message. The Psalms of Asaph highlight preexilic concerns of distress and war and emphasize pending judgment. The songs of ascent anticipate postexilic restoration with a joyful pilgrimage to Jerusalem and the hope of Davidic expectancy. Central to Mitchell’s approach is the belief that the Psalter stresses an eschatological “ingathering,” a movement from Israel to her homeland, followed by the judgment of the nations, and finally the worship of God by all the nations on Mount Zion.

J. Clinton Mccann Jr.: The Lord Reigns

McCann notes that his contribution, though primarily exegetical, is geared toward a theological consideration of the book.[18] He makes a unique contribution to those advocating a holistic approach to the Psalter.

Rather than viewing psalms as liturgical pieces, as is commonly done, McCann proposes they be viewed as instruction or Torah. He begins by considering several aspects of editorial activity that he believes shape the message of the Psalter. McCann says Psalm 1 is a clue to the message of the book as a whole and the foundation for the book’s emphasis on instruction. The righteous and wicked are seen in their relationship to the Torah—not necessarily the Pentateuch but simply instruction. “The Psalter is to be read and heard as God’s instruction to the faithful. Regardless of the fact that the Psalms originated as the response of faithful persons to God, they are now to be understood also as God’s word to the faithful.”[19] Psalm 1 functions as this introductory invitation to receive God’s instruction. The placement of Psalms 19 and 119, two other Torah psalms, also accentuates this point.

Following the invitation in Psalm 1 to receive God’s instruction, Psalm 2 affirms what McCann believes is the “central theological” message of the book, namely, that the Lord reigns.[20] “As a paired introduction to the Psalter, Psalms 1 and 2 anticipate the content, theology, and function of the entire Psalter.”[21] Through this hermeneutical window McCann peers into and progresses through the Psalter, discussing the categories of praise, prayer, and profession. The Psalter’s message is that the reign of the Lord (Ps. 2) is to be received as God’s instruction to the righteous (Ps. 1).

Nancy L. Declaissé-Walford: A Story For Israel’s Survival

DeClaissé-Walford also views the Psalter as having a holistic structure with an overriding message. This is evident from the first sentence in her book. “This study of the Hebrew Psalter approaches the text as a story within a canonical context.”[22] Following Childs’s and James A. Sanders’s “canonical criticism,” which focuses on the final form of texts, DeClaissé-Walford presents her case that the Psalter tells the story of Israel for the Jews of the postexilic period. The clues to this story are found at the beginning and ending of each of the Psalter’s recognized five books.

DeClaissé-Walford argues that Israel needed to find a way to remain and maintain a sense of nationhood when in exile and surrounded by powerful nations. To achieve this, Israel shaped and reinterpreted her literature into a document, namely, the Psalter, and even more generally the Hebrew Bible. The Psalter therefore is “a hermeneutical rationale for identity and survival.”[23] It “celebrates the reigns of David and Solomon in books 1 and 2 [Pss. 1–72]; laments the dark days of oppression during the divided kingdoms and the Babylonian exile in book 3 [Pss. 73–89]; and looks forward to and rejoices in Israel’s restoration to the land and in the reign of YHWH as king in Books 4 and 5 [Pss. 90–150].”[24]

DeClaissé-Walford suggests that two overarching themes run through the book: Torah and kingship. As mentioned, her scheme understands the first two books to present the glory days of Israel under the direction of David and Solomon, whereas book 3 turns to the destruction and lament over the exile of the nation. Psalm 90 plays a pivotal role by sending “the reader/hearer back to the beginning of ancient Israel’s history, before the time of the monarchy, when Israel relied completely on YHWH for sustenance and protection.”[25] In this sense Psalm 90 relates back to the themes of God’s Torah and kingship in Psalms 1 and 2. Books 4 and 5 focus on hope in Yahweh as He is still King despite Israel’s current situation. Thus the Psalter had a dual role in the life of the community. Individual psalms and collections were used in ceremonies and festivals, but the Psalter as a whole was read publicly to remind Israel of her story, “the story of the majestic reign of king David, the dark days of oppression and exile, the restoration of the glorious reign of YHWH, and the surety that Israel could continue to exist as a ‘nation’ in the ancient Near East.”[26] In short, DeClaissé-Walford views the Psalter as a book of “identity” for postexilic Israel. The first three books (Pss. 1–89) answer the vexing question, “Who are we?” and the fourth and fifth books (Pss. 90–150) address the question, “What are we to do in our present situation?”

Objections To A Holistic Approach

Two influential writers, R. Norman Whybray and Erhard S. Gerstenberger,[27] object to a holistic approach to the Psalms. Whybray is not convinced that the goal of the editor(s) of the final shape of the Psalter was to “produce a ‘book’ (as distinct from a mere collection of unrelated items) that could be read through from beginning to end as a coherent work of piety or instruction: a book whose various parts (that is, the 150 individual psalms) were ordered in such a way as to present a single comprehensive message.”[28]

“It is difficult,” he writes, “to believe that the inclusion of a limited number of pure wisdom or Torah psalms scattered in isolated positions in the Psalter could by itself have produced a recognizably wisdom- or Torah-orientated Psalter whose new character would have been obvious to the reader.”[29] On the other hand he suggests that the inclusion of these psalms may be evidence of the need that arose for a reinterpretation of the Psalter, which involved inserting some new psalms and reworking others. While recognizing the possibility of some significant editing and positioning of the royal psalms—especially Psalms 2, 72, and 89, which may hint as to how the Psalms should be read—he states, “There was no systematic redaction of royal psalms, any more than there was a systematic wisdom redaction.”[30] Whybray does concede, however, that although there is no evidence for a systematic reediting of the Psalter to present it as one book, there is no doubt that it has been used as a book over the centuries.

Gerstenberger also objects to the theory that the Psalter as a whole and in its final shape stood as a “ ‘Buch’ in unserem Sinn” (a book in our sense of the word).[31] He suggests, instead, that the work is a collection of prayers and songs arising out of various situations in life.[32] He suggests the Psalter is to be read as a whole in light of the Jewish Diaspora, for at its latest stage the Psalter was not a hymnbook of the second temple period but of Jewish communities scattered across the Hellenistic world.[33] Gerstenberger does maintain, however, that the collection is a book but only in the sense that it is a hymnbook. While he believes that there is editorial activity in the Psalter, he argues that the goal was not to produce a book with a distinct unifying message. “In short, the Psalter does not contain a summa of theological thought or any kind of theological system but a treasury of experiences accumulated by generations of people.”[34]

Conclusion

The vast amount of academic and devotional writings on the Psalter over the last century confirms the fact that attention has focused on the types and life setting of individual psalms. However, the holistic approach to the book cannot be ignored. It has a valuable and valid contribution.

Wilson has certainly shaped the field of Psalms studies. His scrutiny of ancient Near Eastern extrabiblical collections for enhancing the understanding of the Hebrew Psalter is helpful. It is certainly comparable in intent to what the study of ancient Hittite suzerain-vassal texts and Mesopotamian law collections did for scholars in other areas of biblical inquiry. Brueggemann’s approach is appealing. The message of the Psalms, he says, is that the life of faith—though plagued by suffering and lament—begins with obedience to God and climaxes in praise, which in turn is best expressed through obedience. The proposals of Mitchell, McCann, and DeClaissé-Walford—as well as others not analyzed in this article—are interesting and innovative.[35] Their suggestions that the message of the Psalms concerns the Lord’s eschatological reign, His current reign, or the survival story for Israel reflect themes present in the Psalter in one way or another.

Whybray and Gerstenberger’s warnings, however, are also important. They appropriately note that the holistic approach is only a theory. The deeper problem with this movement, however, is whether what is helpful, appealing, interesting, and engaging is enough to consider it accurate and true. It seems that a common denominator in all the proposals is selectivity. The selection of important psalms in the holistic approach—for example Psalms 1, 2, 72, 73, 89, 90, or 150—casts doubt over the validity of this proposal as representing the entire corpus. The message of the Psalter suggested by each proponent depends on which psalms they each prefer.

The glasses through which one peers shapes what is seen. Every scholar examined prescribes a different lens and looks at psalms of their choice. Predetermined theological grids sift through individual psalms. This renders the approach selective and thus subjective.

Selectivity and subjectivity, however, do not mean this approach is not significant. The holistic approach is in its early days of formulation, relatively speaking. It is too early to note whether the approach is following the wrong trajectory.

The holistic approach may or may not be valid. Time will tell. The conclusions presented so far may not be valid, though they may not be far off. Even so, as Martin Luther noted, the Psalter remains the “book of all saints.” As further investigation is carried out, the spiritual nourishment that this collection (or book) has given saints throughout the centuries will continue to refresh myriads of thirsty souls.

Notes

1. Martin Luther, “Preface to the Psalter,” in Luther’s Works, ed. Jaroslav Jan Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehmann (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1960), 35:256.
2. Hermann Gunkel (1862–1932) and Sigmund Mowinckel (1884–1965) were pioneers of these methods. Gunkel noted that the numerous liturgical references pointed to works that were part of the corporate worship of ancient Israel, and so he classified the psalms according to types or genres. His classifications have become the foundation for further research on the genre classification of psalms. See, for example, Hermann Gunkel, The Psalms: A Form-Critical Introduction (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1967); and Hermann Gunkel and Joachim Begrich, Introduction to Psalms: The Genres of the Religious Lyric of Israel, trans. James D. Nogalski (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1998). Sigmund Mowinckel followed Gunkel’s lead and concluded that the psalms were songs and prayers written and used in the public worship of Israel before the destruction of the temple in 586 B.C. (The Psalms in Israel’s Worship [New York: Abingdon, 1962]). This went against previous thought that they were the work of pious individuals for use in private settings.
3. David W. Baker and Bill T. Arnold, The Face of Old Testament Studies: A Survey of Contemporary Approaches (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1999), 329.
4. Gerald Henry Wilson, “The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter” (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1981). It is published as The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter (Chico, CA: Scholars, 1985).
5. With the publication of his Introduction to the Old Testament (Philadelphia, Fortress, 1979), Brevard S. Childs paved a new way for approaching the Psalms. For a summary of Childs’s work see Harry P. Nasuti, Defining the Sacred Songs: Genre, Tradition and the Post-Critical Interpretation of the Psalms, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1999), 164–67. However, in 1962 Claus Westermann had already suggested an important proposal for the holistic interpretation of the Psalms (“Zur Sammlung des Psalters,” Theologia Viatorum 8 [1962]: 278-84).
6. Nasuti, Defining the Sacred Songs, 177.
7. Wilson, “The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter,” i.
8. Wilson’s arguments for editorial activity are as follows. First, the limitation of the Psalter to 150 psalms is the most obvious sign of purposeful shaping. These 150 of Israel’s psalms, he suggests, were included but others were not. Second, intentional editorial arrangement is also evident in the generally accepted belief that there are two major and distinct segments to the Psalter, namely, Psalms 2–89 and 90–145. In Wilson’s opinion the first segment contains strategically placed royal psalms (2, 72, 89) that focus on the Davidic kingship and its demise. The second segment serves as a response of lament to the first, thereby directing attention to the kingship of Yahweh. Third, these two major segments are book-ended by an introduction (Ps. 1) and conclusion (Pss. 146–150). The introduction encourages the reader to meditate on the Torah of God, and the conclusion encourages universal praise of Him. Fourth, Wilson argues that the shift in thematic emphases within the collection, such as lament to praise, human to divine kingship, and changing messianic hopes, coincides in some way with the two major segments of the Psalter. Ultimately the “result is a complete Psalter that seeks to move beyond the exilic experience of Israel and to provide a future grounding for faith in YHWH” (Gerald H. Wilson, “Psalms and Psalter: Paradigm for Biblical Theology,” in Biblical Theology: Retrospect and Prospect, ed. Scott J. Hafemann [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2002], 104).
9. Gerald H. Wilson, “The Qumran Psalms Scroll (11QPsa) and the Canonical Psalter,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 59 (1997): 464. Wilson’s many publications develop this proposal. See, for example, Gerald H. Wilson, Psalms: From Biblical Text to Contemporary Life, NIV Application Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002); “Songs for the City: Interpreting Biblical Psalms in an Urban Context,” in Psalms and Practice: Worship, Virtue, and Authority, ed. Stephen Breck Reid (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical, 2001), 231–43; “Shaping the Psalter: A Consideration of Editorial Linkage in the Book of Psalms,” in The Shape and Shaping of the Psalter, ed. J. Clinton McCann, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series (Sheffield: JSOT, 1993), 72–82; “Understanding the Purposeful Arrangement of Psalms in the Psalter: Pitfalls and Promise,” in The Shape and Shaping of the Psalter, 42–51; “The Use of Royal Psalms at the ‘Seams’ of the Hebrew Psalter,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 35 (1986): 85-94; “The Use of ‘Untitled’ Psalms in the Hebrew Psalter,” Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 97 (1985): 404-13; and “Evidence of Editorial Divisions in the Hebrew Psalter,” Vetus Testamentum 34 (1984): 336-52.
10. Walter Brueggemann, “Bounded by Obedience and Praise: The Psalms as Canon,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 50 (1991): 64.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid., 66.
13. Ibid., 67.
14. Ibid., 72.
15. Ibid., 68.
16. David C. Mitchell, The Message of the Psalter: An Eschatological Programme in the Books of Psalms, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1997), 15.
17. Ibid., 82-85.
18. J. Clinton McCann Jr., A Theological Introduction to the Book of Psalms: The Psalms as Torah (Nashville: Abingdon, 1993), 9–10.
19. Ibid., 27.
20. Ibid., 41. See also J. Clinton McCann Jr., “The Psalms as Instruction,” Interpretation 46 (1992): 123.
21. Ibid.
22. Nancy L. DeClaissé-Walford, Reading from the Beginning: The Shaping of the Hebrew Psalter (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1997), vii.
23. Nancy L. DeClaissé-Walford, “The Canonical Shape of the Psalms,” in An Introduction to Wisdom Literature and the Psalms: Festschrift Marvin E. Tate, ed. H. Wayne Ballard Jr. and W. Dennis Tucker Jr. (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 2000), 99.
24. Ibid.
25. DeClaissé-Walford, Reading from the Beginning, 86.
26. Ibid., 120.
27. R. N. Whybray, Reading the Psalms as a Book, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1996); and Erhard S. Gerstenberger, “Der Psalter als Buch und als Sammlung,” in Neue Wege der Psalmenforschung, ed. Klaus Seybold, Erich Zenger, and Walter Beyerlin (New York: Herder, 1994).
28. Whybray, Reading the Psalms as a Book, 118.
29. Ibid., 38.
30. Ibid., 99 (italics his).
31. Gerstenberger, “Der Psalter als Buch und als Sammlung,” 9.
32. Ibid., 12.
33. Erhard S. Gerstenberger, Psalms: Part 1: With an Introduction to Cultic Poetry (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), 28.
34. Ibid., 36.
35. Others have proposed a holistic reading of the Psalter. For example John H. Walton advances the thesis that the Psalter is a cantata around the theme of the Davidic Covenant (“Psalms: A Cantata about the Davidic Covenant,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 34 [1991]: 21-31). The “hypothetical” cantata, as he calls it, is structured as follows: 

Introduction (Pss. 1–2), Theme: Vindication of the Righteous and Theocratic Sponsorship of the Israelite (Davidic) King

Book 1 (Pss. 3–41), Theme: David’s Conflict with Saul

Book 2 (Pss. 42–72), Theme: David’s Reign

Book 3 (Pss. 73–89), Theme: Assyrian Crisis

Book 4 (Pss. 90–106), Theme: Introspection about the Temple’s Destruction and the Exile

Book 5 (Pss. 107–145), Theme: Praise/Reflection on Return and New Era

Conclusion (Pss. 146–150), Thesis: Praise Relating to Themes of the Psalter.

Walton, however, admits to holding this proposal tentatively. Besides referring to it as “hypothetical,” he concludes by stating that his thesis is only “feasible” (p. 30).